• Introduction and Overview
• Government Agencies
• Non-Government Agencies
• Demographic Profile
• Social Protection
• Child, Youth and Family Policy Regimes
• Maternity Benefits
• Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)
• Child Education
• Child Health
• Special Groups of Children
• Child Labor
• Child Trafficking
• Note
• References

(Last updated October 2006)

Kazakhstan, republic in Central Asia, bounded on the north by Russia; on the east by China; on the south by Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan; and on the west by the Caspian Sea and Russia. Almost all of Kazakhstan is located in the west central portion of the Asian continent; however, a small part of the republic lies west of the Ural River on the European continent. Kazakhstan covers an area of 2,717,300 sq km (1,049,155 sq mi), making it by far the largest country in Central Asia. It was the second largest republic of the former Soviet Union, after Russia. The northern city of Astana (formerly Aqmola) is the capital of the country.

In Kazakh, the official state language, Kazakhstan is called Qazaqstan Respublikasy. The Kazakhs, a Turkic people, constitute a majority of the population. Kazakhstan was part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) from 1922 until December 1991, when it became independent. The republic has maintained a presidential system of government since independence. In 1995 Kazakhstan adopted a new constitution that granted extensive powers to the president. 

In 1993 Kazakhstan promulgated its first post-Soviet constitution, which officially established Kazakhstan as an independent republic with a democratic system of government. In a referendum held in August 1995, voters approved a new constitution that provided for substantial changes in government, including the creation of a bicameral (two-chamber) legislature. Constitutional amendments that were enacted in 1998 lengthened the terms of office for the president and the members of the legislature. All citizens aged 18 and older may vote. [Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia, 2006] 

Executive:

The president of Kazakhstan is head of state. The president is directly elected to a seven-year term. The president appoints a prime minister, with the approval of the legislature, to head the government. The president also officially confirms the prime minister’s recommended appointments to the Council of Ministers. The constitution gives extensive powers to the president, including the right to rule by decree and to dissolve the legislature under certain conditions. The constitution also prohibits the president from being officially affiliated with a political party. 

Legislature:

The legislature of Kazakhstan comprises two chambers, the Senate (upper house) and the Majlis (lower house), with a combined total of 116 members. Members of the lower house serve five-year terms, while members of the upper house serve six-year terms. Of the 39 members of the Senate, 32 are elected by regional assemblies (special electoral colleges comprised of members of local councils), and 7 are appointed by the president. All 77 members of the Majlis are directly elected.  

Judiciary:

The highest court in Kazakhstan is the Supreme Court, whose members are nominated by the president and chosen by the Senate. Supreme Court judges are appointed for life. Under the 1995 constitution, the Constitutional Court that had been established in 1991 was replaced by the Constitutional Council. The council rules on all constitutional matters, but its decisions are subject to a presidential right of veto. The council is composed of seven members: three appointed by the president and four appointed by the legislature. 

For purposes of local government, Kazakhstan is divided into 14 administrative regions, called oblystar in Kazakh and oblasts in Russian. These units are administered by councils (in Kazakh, maslikhat) that are directly elected for four-year terms. The councils implement national policies on the local level and coordinate these policies with the individual needs of their particular region. Although the councils wield considerable authority, the system ensures that ultimate power lies with the national government. The president of the republic appoints the senior administrators (akims) of each region. The akims head the councils and can override council decisions. Furthermore, the president of the republic may cancel or suspend acts of the akims. [Microsoft Encarta online Encyclopedia, 2006] 

The economy of Kazakhstan is largely based on its extensive natural resources. Kazakhstan’s vast steppes support wheat farms and livestock grazing. Abundant fossil fuel and other mineral resources lie beneath the land. Heavy industry was developed to support the extraction of these mineral reserves, giving the country a relatively diversified economy. In the 1990s the service sector increased in importance, due to an increase in retail outlets and financial services.  

The economy of Kazakhstan declined precipitously following independence. The GDP immediately fell by more than half, as economic decline throughout the former Soviet Union resulted in plummeting regional trade. The economy continued to decline through most of the 1990s. Austerity measures began to bring Kazakhstan’s skyrocketing inflation under control in 1995, but the country faced a severe balance-of-payments problem due to its massive foreign debt. The growing fiscal crisis came to a head in 1999. That year, the government implemented an emergency program that included massive reductions in government jobs. Helped by growing regional demand and market prices for Kazakhstan’s products, the economy significantly improved in 2000. The government has remained committed to the transition to a free-market economy, although reforms have proceeded slowly. For example, it implemented several phases of mass privatization, with the goal of transferring the majority of state-owned enterprises and farms to the private sector. The government also opened the economy to foreign investment, which has tended to focus on the extraction and export of the country’s large petroleum and gas reserves.  

The government of Kazakhstan plans to double its Gross domestic product (GDP) by 2008 and triple by 2015 compared to 2000. The GDP growth was stable in the last five years, and was higher than 9%. The GDP growth in 2004 was 9.4%. Kazakhstan's economy grew by 9.2% in 2003, buoyed by high world crude oil prices. GDP grew 9.5% in 2002; it grew 13.2% in 2001, up from 9.8% in 2000. [CIA World Fact Book 2006, Wikipedia 2006] 

Kazakhstan is home to the Baikonur Cosmodrome, the leading space center of the former USSR. During the Soviet period the complex was operated almost exclusively by residents of Russia and created very little benefit for the Kazakh economy. Following independence, the facility was leased to Russia.  

In 2005, services (including education, health care, and retail trade) contributed 51.8 percent to the GDP, industry (including mining, manufacturing, and construction) contributed 40.4 percent, and agriculture contributed 7.8 percent. The labor force was 7.85 million in 2005; the services sector is the largest employer, with half the population engaged in this sector. The industry sector employs 3o percent and agriculture, 20 percent of the population. The unemployment rate was 7.6% in 2005. [CIA World Fact Book 2006] 

Between 1990 and 2001, 1.5 percent of the population lived on less than US$1 a day (population below the poverty line); and 15.3 percent lived on less than US$2 a day (population in near poverty). Around 91% of Kazakhstan’s population has access to improved water sources, and those who had access to improved sanitation facilities reached 99% in 2000. [Human Development Indicators - UNDP, 2003] 

In 2003, women constituted 47 percent of the total labor force, similar to the rest of Europe and Central Asia (46%). In 2000, 17.5 percent of women were in government at the ministerial level. 10.4 percent of seats in the lower house and 5.1 percent of seats in the upper house were held by women in 2000. [Human Development Indicators - UNDP, 2003] 

The government is committed to children's rights, though budget limitations and other priorities severely limited the government's effectiveness in dealing with child welfare. In July 1994, Kazakhstan ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child. In 2000, the President signed the Optional Protocols to the Convention pertaining to children’s involvement in armed conflicts, child trafficking, child prostitution and child pornography. 

With a view to guaranteeing the rights of the younger generation, Kazakhstan adopted legislations including the Education Act, the Republic of Kazakhstan Citizens Health Protection Act, the Marriage and Family Act, the Special Government Allowance Act and others, containing special chapters and sections facilitating implementation of the basic provisions of the Convention of the Rights of the Child. [UNICEF Innocenti Research Center, 2001] 

The age of majority, the marriageable age and the call-up age of 18 years established by the civil legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan do not contradict the provisions of the Convention. A child may exercise certain rights on a par with adults, such as the right to work, from the age of 16, and the age of discretion has been set at 14 years. 

The legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan guarantees the child’s right to education, leisure and recreational and cultural activities, which is also in line with the provisions of the Constitution. The policy of protecting the rights and legitimate interests of children is recognized as a high priority area for government bodies of all levels. [UNICEF Innocenti Research Center, 2001]   

Education is mandatory through age 16, or the ninth grade; elementary schooling generally begins at age 6. Primary and secondary education are both free and universal. The law provides for equal access to education by both boys and girls. The law also provides for medical care to be provided for all children, irrespective of gender, and care was provided in practice.  

There are reports of child abuse, although there seems to be no societal pattern of such abuse. Child marriage is illegal, and the government enforces the prohibition in practice. The law specifies the minimum age for marriage for men and women to be 18 years. Trafficking in girls and child labor are problems the Republic still faces. [US Department of State, 2005]

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Government Agencies

The Federal Ministry of Labor and Social Protection: The ministry is responsible for policies and programs related to citizen’s right to state social benefits, and labor protection. 

The Federal Ministry of Health: The ministry of the central governing body for all health-related federal and state policies and programs including child and maternal health, and HIV/AIDS.

The Federal Ministry of Education and Science: The ministry is responsible for state policy in the field of education and science, general scientific and methodical guidance over all educational and scientific institutions.

The National commission for Child Protection: The commission works to deinstitutionalize children with special needs and integrate them into the mainstream of society.

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Non-Government Agencies

There is no formal definition of a Non Government Organization (NGO) in the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The legislation uses a term of "non-commercial organization" that includes organizations with various legal forms, such as institutions, public associations, joint stock companies, consumers' cooperatives, foundations, religious associations, associations of legal entities in the form of association or union and other organizations established in other forms stipulated by the legislative acts (Article 6 of the Law "On Non-Commercial Organizations", as of January 16, 2001). Membership is required only for a public association.

Non-commercial organizations can be founded for achieving social, cultural, scientific, educational, charitable goals as well as defending human rights and freedoms of individuals. Non-commercial organizations can pursue goals both targeted at achievement of public welfare and welfare of their members. A Public Association can be created by the initiative of at least ten individuals, who call a general meeting/conference of founders, in which the charter is adopted and the structure of governing bodies of the organization is decided. The law stipulates that military servants, employees of national security service, law enforcement bodies and judges have no right to be members of political parties, trade unions, to assist to any of political partiers.

Non-commercial organizations and in particular the public associations cannot exist without state registration and without getting a status of a legal entity. Nevertheless, the state acknowledges meetings and conferences of citizens at which they adopt a charter and establish governing bodies of not yet registered associations. However, obtaining a status of legal entity is a mandatory condition for activity of associations because establishment and activity of non-registered public associations is subject to administrative and criminal liability.  Public associations are established upon an initiative of not less than ten citizens convening founders meeting.

The primary legislation governing NGOs in Kazakhstan include the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1994); the law "On Public Associations" (1996); the law "On Non-Commercial Organizations" (2001); the law "On Freedom of Belief and Religious Organizations" (1992); and the law "On Trade Unions" (1993). NGOs are required to be registered under any of these laws to be recognized as legal entities. [Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, 2005]

In 2001, the number of officially registered NGOs was approximately 6,000, the vast majority of which were dormant, quasi-governmental, or otherwise non-existent. However, there were approximately 1,000 active NGOs, up from an estimated 800 the previous year. During the post-Soviet period NGOs were traditionally small organizations with narrow membership bases and a relatively elite outlook. In recent years, a few organizations have begun to emerge with a broader membership base and with an increasing focus on establishing links with their communities. Nevertheless, the perception remains that NGOs are elite donor driven entities, motivated more by outside agendas than by the internal needs of Kazakhstan’s citizens. 

The NGO community is diverse, and relatively strong in certain sub-sectors. NGOs focused on environmental issues, for example, are among Kazakhstan’s most mature civic organizations, with many having been active since the middle 1980s. NGOs focused on social-service provision are also prominent in Kazakhstan, as a result of the continuing failure of the state to provide adequate health care, education, legal rights and other social services to large segments of the population.

The large majority of Kazakhstan’s NGOs are not very financially viable. They are either entirely dependent on grants from foreign organizations or subsist at a micro-level on grassroots, informal support from local residents and businesses. This continuing dependence on foreign donors is problematic for several reasons. Foreign donors are limited in number, which creates a competitive, rather than cooperative dynamic within the sector. Also, the year-to-year funding cycles of international donors creates a sense of insecurity that hinders NGOs' ability to plan, much less operate, in the mid- to long-term. The law provides for non-commercial organizations to receive financial support from international organization, which are listed as donors by the government, as a grants or sponsorship support.

A large and increasing number of NGOs are engaged in providing basic social services (health, education, and disaster relief) to vulnerable segments of the population. The gradual improvements in the level of professionalism and the cumulative technical support received over the years from foreign donor organizations has increased the ability of NGOs to provide a relatively wide range of services to local populations. Government recognition and support for NGOs that provide basic social services has noticeably improved in Kazakhstan. In certain areas of the country, local governments have even explored ways of providing financing to NGOs in the form of grant competitions and access to state tender competitions for the provision of social services. [USAID, 2001]

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In 2006 Kazakhstan had an estimated population of 15,233,244, giving it an average population density of 6 persons per sq km (15 per sq mi). Some 55 percent of the population lives in urban areas, making Kazakhstan the most urbanized of the Central Asian republics. The republic’s larger cities include Almaty, the former capital; Qaraghandy (also spelled Karaganda); Shymkent (Chimkent); Semey; and Pavlodar. Astana, which replaced Almaty as the capital in 1997, is a relatively small city located in the north.

The life expectancy of the population has increased from 63.19 years in 2000 to 66.89 years in 2006. The total fertility rate declined from 2.16 children per woman in 2003 to 1.89 children per woman in 2006, lowest among all the Central Asian countries.

The median age of the population is 28.8 years; 23 percent is between 0-14 years, 68.8 percent is between 15-64 years, and 8.2 percent are 65 years and older. Population growth rate declined from an estimated 1.1 percent (1970-1990), to 0.33 percent in 2006. In addition, both the birth rate and the death rate have seen a decline between 2003 and 2006. The birth rate declined from18.36 to 16 births per 1000 persons; and the death rate declined from 10.78 to 9.42 per 1000 persons during this period. The dependency ratio declined from 52.03 (2000) to 45.91 percent (2005), and is expected to further decline to 40.54 percent by 2010. [CIA World Fact Book, 2006]

Kazakhs constitute 53 percent of Kazakhstan’s population, according to the 1999 census. The next largest ethnic group is Russians, with 30 percent of the population. Russians are concentrated in the north and in large urban areas, whereas Kazakhs are the predominant ethnic group in rural areas. Other ethnic groups in Kazakhstan include Ukrainians, Uzbeks, Germans, Uygurs (Uighurs), Chechens, Tatars, and Koreans.

Kazakhstan was the only Soviet republic in which the titular nationality (or ethnic group for which a republic was named) constituted less than 50 percent of the population. Large numbers of Russians and Ukrainians settled in Kazakhstan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, after Central Asia became part of the Russian Empire. During World War II (1939-1945), the Soviet authorities deported Germans, Crimean Tatars, Koreans, and others to Kazakhstan from other parts of the Soviet Union. Another wave of large-scale immigration of Russians and other Slavs into Kazakhstan began in 1954 as part of a Soviet program to increase the amount of cultivated land in northern Kazakhstan. By 1959 Russians outnumbered Kazakhs in the republic. During the 1980s this demographic trend reversed. Birth rates were higher among Kazakhs, and the immigration of other ethnic groups abated. By 1989, when the last Soviet census was conducted, Kazakhs outnumbered Russians, although only by a slim margin. At that time Kazakhs constituted 39.7 percent of the population, and Russians made up 37.8 percent. After Kazakhstan became an independent republic in 1991, the proportion of Kazakhs continued to increase because many Germans, Russians, and members of other ethnic groups left Kazakhstan, while a significant number of Kazakhs moved into the republic from the neighboring Central Asian states and from Mongolia. In addition, the birth rate was generally higher among Kazakhs.

The majority of the population of Kazakhstan (88%) are Muslim (mostly Sunnis), 9% are Eastern Orthodox, and 3% follow other religions.

The official language of Kazakhstan is Kazakh. Russian is the primary language of interethnic communication in Kazakhstan. The law recognizes Russian as a national language and allows it to be used in education, government, the military, and the courts. [CIA World Fact Book, 2006]

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Social Protection

During the Soviet period, Kazakhstan’s social welfare system was funded by the Soviet central government. In the early 1990s the government of a newly independent Kazakhstan introduced pension, social insurance, and unemployment funds.  

The social safety net system in Kazakhstan mainly consists of state social benefits, special state social benefits and Targeted Social Assistance. There are 22 types of social benefits and TSA currently available in Kazakhstan. 

State social benefits, financed from the central budget, are a part of the state social protection system and represent periodical monetary transfers to citizens in need due to disability, loss of the family breadwinner, or old age. 

Special state social benefits, seven types financed from the central budget and nine types financed from the local budgets, are monetary transfers to those who need social protection, and are given regardless of other types of benefits. Persons eligible for the benefits include those who participated in or were disabled during the  “Great Patriotic War” (World War II is called the “Great Patriotic War” in Kazakhstan) , families of lost military/policemen, families of persons lost as a result of the Chernobyl disaster and other radiation disasters and accidents, persons rewarded with orders and medals of the Former Soviet Union for their hard work during the “Great Patriotic War”, disabled persons classified in three degrees, depending on the degree of disability, disabled children under the age of 16, mothers of large families, (families with four or more children), and victims of political repression.  

State TSA is a monetary transfer to persons or families with monthly incomes below the poverty line, as established in each oblast, and in Astana and Almaty cities. Citizens of Kazakhstan, refugees, foreigners and persons without citizenship having a residence permit and permanently residing in Kazakhstan are eligible for TSA if they have an average per capita income below the poverty line of $ 1 USD per day. 

Child Care Support  

In 2004 the government developed a measure to support families planning to have a third child. 3,080,948 Tenge (US$24,947.96) has been allocated in the 2004 state budget for this purpose. 

In accordance with the Government Resolution of 25 February 2003 (# 2000), mothers (i.e., citizens or expatriates, foreigners, persons without citizenship permanently residing in Kazakhstan) who give birth to a child within the territory of the Republic are entitled to a lump-sum state child allowance. The allowance is provided for each child born regardless of his/her mother’s income level. In case of the mother’s death, the entitlement goes to the father. It also applies to the case of adoption. The monthly allowance amounts to 13,080 Tenge (US$105.91) in 2003. 

In accordance with the Law on State Allowance for the Disabled  and Families Without a Breadwinner of 16 June 1997 (# 126-1), disabled children under 16+ years and children disabled from birth receive monthly allowances of 3488 to 5232 Tenge (  US$28.24 to 42.36). Children of a family without a breadwinner receive 1744 to 13,080 Tenge (US$14.12 to US$105.91). Minors retain the right to the allowance for loss of breadwinner even after being adopted. UNICEF estimated in 2001 that 100 percent of disabled children received the monthly disability allowance.  [US Social Security Administration, 2004]

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Child, Youth and Family Policy Regimes

Maternity Benefits

Maternity benefits policies  in Kazakhstan include cash benefits (paid by the employer) and the universal medical care system. In accordance with the Labor Law of 10 December 1999, a lump-sum (including pregnancy and childbirth allowance - which is 100% of earnings) is granted to the mothers by their employers regardless of the duration of their services in the employment.  

These benefits are payable for a total of 126 calendar days before and after the expected date of childbirth, this is usually 70 days before the delivery and 56 days after the delivery. This may be extended to 140 days if there are complications during child birth.  

When a child is adopted directly from a maternity hospital, one of the parents is granted a leave of 56 days, along with an allowance from the employer, regardless of the years of his/her employment. 

When the child is less than 1.5+ year old, the mother can apply for an additional leave of absence for childcare during which time the employer must reserve her post. The same entitlement is granted to a mother who adopts a child directly from a maternity hospital. The leave of absence can be used either entirely or partially any time before the child becomes 1.5+ year old. [US Social Security Administration, 2004]

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Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)

At the initiative of a private organization, the first playground for children was opened in 1917 in Verny (presently Almaty) with 300 places. It later became a kindergarten. Inspired by this, public kindergartens were established, marking the beginning of the development of public preschool education in Kazakhstan.  

In 1922, there were over 22 kindergartens and playgrounds across the country. In 1930 the first rural Kindergarten was set up in the South-Kazakhstan region. By 1991, the number of preschools reached its peak, with 8,881 units operating in the country catering to 46.6% of children ages 2 months to 7+ years. The percentage of 6+ year olds who have attended preschools and who have had pre-primary education reached 84.4%. 

Before 1961, the main purpose of preschool institutions was to take care of young children while parents were working, paying attention to their health and physical development. However, parents started to demand more than child minding for their children. In preschool institutions emphasis became placed on playing and learning in a team. Children were engaged in games and physical exercises and taught self-servicing skills. They participated in activities to promote language and literacy development, which became an essential part of the preschool curriculum. 

Since 1962, kindergartens in Kazakhstan have followed the program guidelines developed on the basis of the Standard Program Requirements of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. The pedagogy was teacher-oriented, rigid and mechanical. Children were disciplined strictly and required to follow instructions. But with the Education Law enacted in 1992 which emphasizes the importance of children’s holistic development, educational institutions came to have much more freedom in selecting and designing their programs. The modernization and democratization of educational practices and processes also came to require new training and the introduction of new programs. After Kazakhstan obtained independence in the early 1990s, various forms of services (e.g., kindergarten school complex, preschool gymnasiums, preschool centers, author kindergartens, child development centers, etc.) were set up by both public and private actors. As of 2004, there were 1,195 preschool organizations, serving 20.7% of  the children aged 1 to 6) , 153 of which were  private. 

As compared with 1991, the kindergarten network has shrunk by almost 80 percent.  Because of the closing down of pre-school child care centers and a high cost of the services offered by the remaining ones only 11 children out of 100 benefit from pre-school education programs. To rectify the situation, public education institutions offer a free pre-school education program for five- and six-years old children. 

The Step by Step program was introduced in Kazakhstan in 1996, focusing on children’s personality development and parental involvement. The Step by Step Program developes partnerships with local communities and government agencies, democratizing the educational processes concerning young children and advocating for the need of parental and community involvement in the care and education of young children. It also  advocates the importance of inclusive education for children with special needs. 

The pre-school network in Kazakhstan operated by the government, includes nurseries (for 1 to 3 year olds), kindergartens (for 4 to 5 year olds), and pre-primary classes in a school setting (for 6 year olds). Pre-primary institutions can provide both independent and combined services. Most nurseries and kindergartens operate for 10 hours a day. Some kindergartens, such as early child hood orphanages or Kinderdorf (children’s village) provide 24 hour services. In addition to these services, there are mini preschool centers which usually operate from homes (similar to family day care homes). These organizations provide shorter and more flexible service and usually have a mixed group of children.   

There is a small but growing private provision of early childhood services in Kazakhstan. In private provision, there are formally organized services (e.g. full-time and short-time nurseries, children’s centers for children ages 1 to 6 or 7, preschool groups for children in KG-School) and informally organized services (e.g. baby sitters, nanny services). MOES monitors the former but does not finance them. 

In 2004, 20.7% of children aged 1 to 6 were attending Preschool Organizations (POs). The regional gap, however is enormous, the rate of urban areas standing at 32.9% as opposed to 5.6% for rural areas. About 83% of POs are public; 13% private; and 3% of other status. The percentage of POs funded by local authorities grew to 26% of the total, an increase by 9% compared with 2000.  

Because of the increased number of children entering into primary schools without pre-primary education, the government encouraged since 1999 the opening of preprimary classes, a free one-year pre-primary education service established in general secondary schools for children who have never benefited from early childhood service. As a result, 63% of 5 and 6 year olds were receiving pre-primary education in 2004, compared with 20% in 1998. Interestingly, the gap between urban and rural areas in the participation of children aged 5 to 6 in Preschool Education is not so pronounced compared to that among 1 to 6 year olds. 

In urban areas, parents pay, on the average, about 2,500 Tenge (US$20.24) for a general state PO for 5 to 6 year olds. The fee increases to about 3,300 Tenge (US$26.72) if it caters for 0 to 5 year olds. The fees in rural areas are generally lower, 1,344 Tenge (US$10.88) for 5 to 6 year olds as opposed to 2,500 Tenge in urban areas (US$20.24), and about 1,600 Tenge (US$12.95) for 0 to 5 year olds as opposed to 3,300 Tenge (US$26.72) in urban areas. 

Article 23 of the Education Law of 7 June 1999 (# 389-1) states that preschool education is the first level of the country’s educational system and that preschool age children have the right to education alongside school age children. The Government Resolution on the Issues of Children’s Compulsory Pre-primary Preparation (# 1762) of November 1999 states that one-year pre-primary classes for children of 5+ - 6+ years of age can be set up in general secondary schools and other educational establishments may be set up by different government sectors, both public and private. Pre-primary classes can also be set up in Preschool Organizations. Pre-primary education in public kindergartens and schools is to be funded by the state budget.

The State Program on Education Development for 2005 to 2010 aims to improve access to all forms of preschool education in view to setting favorable conditions for the introduction of compulsory preschool education starting from the age 3+. It states the following targets:

• 164 preschool organizations with 23,000 places will be constructed;

• 800 mini preschool centers with enrolment of 20,000 children will be established;

• 380 special rooms/premises for inclusive preschool education for special needs children will be set up;

• 75% of 5+-year-olds will have access to improved and updated teaching-learning processes in preprimary education;

• 30% of children from poor families will have access to preschool education through establishing a social support mechanism.

Participation Rate in Preschools in 2003:

Source: UNESCO, 2004

The Ministry of Education and Science is the main government body responsible for the policy development and provision of services for preschool education. The Ministry of Health is also involved in relation to the monitoring of children’s physical development and provision of necessary health services; the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection in relation to children with special needs; and the Commission for Family and Women’s Affairs in relation to family matters.

In 2001, public expenditure on education was 0.1 percent of the GDP. Preschool education expenditure as a percentage of the total education expenditure declined from 7.1% in 1997 to 3% in 2003 – despite a 45% increase in public expenditure in the preschool sector over the period 2000-2004. [UNESCO, 2004]

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Child Education

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Child Health

Children under 18 and women of reproductive age constitute two-thirds of Kazakhstan’s population, therefore mother and child health protection is high on the government’s priority list.

During the period 1992–1995, after its independence from the Soviet Union, a marked deterioration was seen in a number of indicators of health status. Rates of infant and maternal mortality remain high, while incidence rates for tuberculosis, sexually transmitted infections, etc., are increasing.

Official national statistics, which do not use the WHO-recom­mended definition of «live birth», indicate that after rising to 28.0‰ in 1993, the infant mortality rate continuously de­creased to 19.4 in 2001 and 15.3% in 2003. For comparison, the infant mortality rate in Germany is 4.3% (2003), in Estonia it is 5.7% (2002), in Latvia – 9.9% (2002), in Russia – 13.3% (2002), in Uzbekistan – 16.7%, in Ukraine – 10.3% (2002), and in Kyrgyzstan – 21.2% (2002).

The under-5 mortality rate declined from 34 births/1000 live births in 1990 to 21.7 births/1000 live births in 2002. The 2015 millennium development goal target is 11.3 births/1000 live births.

A study conducted by UNDP in 2000 found that the leading causes of death of children between 1 and 5 years of age are respiratory diseases (28.6%) and in­fections (19.4%), especially intestinal infections (8%), sepsis (5.8%) and meningitis (5.7%). It ascertained that the devel­opment of infections was linked to malnutrition, anemia, and the early termination or complete absence of breast-feeding, all of which lead to deficiencies in the immune system.

The health care system in Kazakhstan, like in other republics of the former Soviet Union, had an extensive network of establishments and a large number of hospital beds, which ensured general access to health care, but such care was of low quality and inefficient use was made of existing resources. The system was mainly focused on the hospital service, with not enough use made of primary health care networks.

The number of hospital establishments fell from 1778 in 1990 to 991 in 1998. There was a corresponding reduction in the number of beds, , i.e. almost 50%.

The republic is in the process of reforming the health care system: the sector has moved to combined budgetary/insurance-based funding. In 1999, a new centre was established for the payment of medical services from budgetary allocations. A mechanism of targeted, program-based funding is being developed. In addition, there are also efforts to  set up a nongovernmental system for the delivery of medical care, private clinics as major centers for diagnosis, rehabilitation and health promotion. The ultimate aim of these measures is to develop primary health care as much as possible and to bring it close to the population – ensuring accessibility and a guaranteed range of health care. In order to develop general practice/family medicine, outpatient/polyclinic establishments have begun to be reorganized, and an extensive network of outpatient facilities in family medicine is being set up. In 1997–1998, 815 such facilities were established.

According to data available in 2000, health care expenditure in Kazakhstan (at 2.75% of GDP, a decline from 3.2% in 1990) is one of the lowest in the European Region. There are plans to increase this to 4% of the GDP by 2008. [World Health Organization, 1999]

HIV/AIDS 

Kazakhstan has more cases of HIV/AIDS than in its four neighboring countries. The first case of HIV was reported in 1987. By mid-2003 the number of registered cases had grown to over 3,600. Sentinel surveillance conducted in 2003 has shown prevalence levels of 3.8% in injecting drug users and 4.6% in sex workers but there are no data concerning men who have sex with men.  

Young people, especially young men, have been disproportionately affected. Over half the infected people are between 20-29 years, almost 90% are between 15-39 years, and almost 80% are men. The most common mode of transmission is infected syringes and needles while injecting drugs. The virus is concentrated among unemployed youth and prisoners. Almost 75% of affected persons were unemployed at time of infection. The disease is also increasing rapidly among prisoners. 

The Government has recently accelerated its actions against HIV. The National Program for 2001-2005 was approved in 2001. The program has three primary objectives:

• to prevent the virus from spreading into the general population from high-risk groups;

• to reduce the growth of the HIV-vulnerable groups, especially the youth; and to ensure that at least 80% of HIV-infected persons are covered with medical and social programs to reduce their contagiousness. [World Bank, 2006]

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Special Groups of Children

Child Labor

The government effectively implements the law and policies to protect children from exploitation in the workplace. The minimum age for employment is 16 years; children between 14 and 16 years can only work with parental permission, performing light work that does not interfere with their health or education.

Child labor is used routinely in agricultural areas, especially during harvest season, but abuse of child labor is generally not a problem. The Ministry of Labor is responsible for enforcement of child labor laws. [US Department of State, 2005]

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Child Trafficking

The law prohibits trafficking in persons, but it remains a problem. Although no one provision of the law specifically prohibits trafficking in persons, several articles of the criminal code cover several forms of human trafficking. The law criminalizes the recruitment of any person for sexual or other exploitation and also includes all forms of trafficking. Trafficking for exploitation is punishable by a maximum two-year prison term; if a minor is involved, the maximum penalty increases to five years' imprisonment, and if the exploited person is transferred abroad, the maximum penalty is eight years' imprisonment. The purchase or sale of a minor is a crime, punishable by up to 10 years in prison.  

Compared with previous years, international experts reported a decrease in the number of cases of citizens being trafficked abroad for sexual or labor exploitation and an increase in labor trafficking into and within the country in 2005. Experts believed the economic growth of the country, especially in relation to its neighbors, contributed directly to both trends.  

Prosecutions for trafficking is rare, despite the fact that the Law Enforcement Coordination Council (under the leadership of the procurator general) provides detailed guidelines to law enforcement and procurators nationwide on how to investigate trafficking and related crimes under particular sections of the criminal code. Despite an increase in investigations, convictions are also rare, due to inadequacies in criminal statutes; to prove a case of trafficking for sexual exploitation, the prosecutor has to show that the victim was unaware that she would be working as a prostitute. Prosecutors more effectively use articles of the criminal code such as those concerning illegal prostitution and kidnapping to charge suspects whose activities include trafficking.  

The justice ministry coordinates all of the government's ant trafficking activities. In 2005, interagency working group led by the justice minister and including the internal affairs minister, KNB chairman, prosecutor general, foreign minister, education minister, and a representative of the Presidential Commission on Women and Family, developed a second biannual National Plan to combat trafficking, covering 2006 to 2008. The government sought cooperation with authorities in both destination countries where its citizens were trafficked and in source countries of victims brought into the country. A comprehensive set of amendments to the criminal and administrative codes to specifically address legislative gaps in the fight against trafficking in persons was drafted in 2005. These amendments are still pending parliamentary approval. 

The country is a source, transit, and destination country for victims of trafficking. Internal trafficking is also a problem. No reliable statistics are available on the number of victims each year, but NGOs estimated there are several thousand. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) estimates that thousands of citizens are trafficked per year, with an increase in the number of foreigners trafficked into the country for labor exploitation. Individuals are trafficked to the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Turkey, Israel, South Korea, Greece, Cyprus, Russia, Syria, and Western Europe. They were trafficked from the Kyrgyz Republic, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and South Asia.  

Traffickers target young women in their teens and 20s for sexual exploitation. According to NGOs, most women are recruited with promises of good jobs or marriage abroad. Adolescents raised in orphanages, regardless of gender, and residents of rural and economically disadvantaged areas are particularly vulnerable to being trafficked. The country's relative prosperity otherwise serves as a factor against citizens being trafficked through seeking employment abroad. Some evidence suggests that children are trafficked from Uzbekistan for agriculture and domestic labor. 

The government provides limited material assistance and physical protection to trafficked women who return to the country. NGOs run crisis support centers that provided legal and material assistance and counseling, under memoranda of understanding with the government. In some cases the government provides NGOs with reduced rate leases and other support. The IOM, in conjunction with 19 NGOs across the country, continues an information campaign on the dangers of trafficking and maintains victim hot lines. The MOJ maintains separate national hotlines for trafficking victims to report crimes and to receive information. The government provides special training for law enforcement and other government officials to improve their abilities to recognize, investigate, and prosecute instances of trafficking. The education ministry reports that curriculum of all high schools and colleges include trafficking awareness segments. According to the Ministry of Education, most universities have information and analysis centers that deal with trafficking awareness issues, among other topics. [US Department of State, 2005]

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Note

* Research and Reported by Manita C. Rao

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