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(Last updated July 2004)
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Introduction and Overview
Families and children, and indeed issues of
fertility, have played a major role in Israeli social policy
in the years since the state was established. As a result,
in various fields of social policy Israel has adopted pro-family
policies. These include family allowances, child and family
tax benefits, a well-developed system of health services for
young children and high levels of expenditure on education.
Israel is characterized by a high fertility level, by a large
proportion of children in the population and by relatively
low levels of divorce and single parenthood.
The Israeli welfare state combines an adherence
to the Beveridge social insurance model with an emphasis on
social assistance provision for the poor. While during the
1970's Israel moved closer to the Nordic social-democratic
welfare state model, over the last two decades there has been
a growing emphasis upon privatization, welfare state retrenchment
and attempts by decision-makers to curb social spending. Today,
levels of social expenditure are lower than those in most
welfare states.
Despite the emphasis on family policies, the
relatively comprehensive welfare state and the level of social
expenditure, the effectiveness of the Israeli welfare state
in combating social gaps and poverty has been very limited.
Poverty levels in general, and child poverty levels in particular,
are higher than in most other welfare states. This is particularly
true for the Arab minority.
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Highlights
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highlights in pdf format.
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Government Agencies
Responsibility for child and family is divided
among a number of ministries and governmental institutions.
There is no governmental mechanism to coordinate among them.
The Israeli parliament (Knesset) has established a Committee
on the Status of Woman and recently also a Committee for the
Status of Children. The main responsibilities are divided
among the different ministries as follows: child allowances,
maternity cash benefits, maternity leaves as well as all the
other social security benefits are the responsibility of the
National Insurance Institute. The Ministry of Health is responsible
for health care and for the universal system of mother and
baby welfare clinics. The Ministry for Industry, Commerce
and Labor is responsible for day-care services for children
ages 0-3 and the day-care services for older children of working
mothers. Day-care and educational services for children older
than 3 are the responsibility of the Ministry of Education.
Addition social services are the responsibility of the Ministry
for Social Affairs.
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Demographic and Other Social Trends
With a population of about 6.7 million inhabitants (2003),
Israel is not only a small country, but also a very young
one. Some 9.5 percent of the population is over age 65. Some
33.5% of the population are children under the age of 18.
Israel is also unique in the heterogeneity of its child population.
Some 27% of children are Arabs, who in turn are divided into
Muslims, Christians and Druze. Approximately 13% of the children
are immigrants or were born in Israel to immigrant parents
who arrived in the country between the years 1990-2002, mostly
from the former USSR and Ethiopia. About 10% of the children
are Ultra-Orthodox Jews and, finally, there is still much
evidence of a cleavage between children in families of European
origin (Ashkenazim) and those of African or Asian origin (Sepharadim).
With regard to family formation, Israel still remains a traditional
society, although the rate of single parent families with
children is on the rise (especially among new immigrants from
the former USSR). The proportion of lone parents families
among all families is still low — 12%. The same is true
for divorce rates, which are definitely on the rise but are
still low. As to participation in the work force there are
particularly low participation rates among Arab woman and
Ultra-Orthodox Jewish men (Efrat, Ben-Arieh, Gal & Haj-Yahia,
1998; Zionit, 2000). At the end of 2003 the unemployment rate
was almost 11% despite strong economic growth (Ben-Arieh,
Zionit, & Krizak, 2003).
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Social Protection
The Israeli welfare state combines an adherence to the Beveridge
social insurance model with an emphasis on social assistance
provision for the poor. Benefit levels are relatively low
and, like Britain and other liberal welfare states, Israel
places great emphasis upon the provision of social insurance
through free market mechanisms, particularly through the widespread
existence of occupational pensions for the elderly, with state
programs intended to serve as a safety net and supplement
(Doron & Kramer, 1991). In addition, historically non-contributory
and non-means tested benefits have also played a major role
in the Israeli welfare state (Gal, 2000). While the Israeli
welfare state was clearly modeled on the Beveridge model when
it was first established during the 1950's, it moved closer
to Social-Democratic model during the 1970's with the introduction
of more wage-related benefits, wider coverage of needs and
better indexing of benefits levels. Nevertheless, the Israeli
welfare state would appear to be closer to the liberal (Anglo-American
and 'free market') welfare state ideal type than any of the
other welfare state regimes in the Esping-Andersen (1990)
typology. Moreover, decision-makers in Israel during the last
two decades have been publicly committed to cutting welfare
expenditure and to placing emphasis upon individual meeting
of needs through the market. Apart from social security, Israel
has a national health insurance program that effectively provides
relatively comprehensive health service to all citizens. Education,
between the age 5 and 15, is compulsory and free and is usually
provided by state school. The state partially subsidizes housing
for low income and immigrant families.
Social expenditure in Israel grew during the 1990s but then
began to drop in the early 200s and reached just over 20%
of GDP. In 2003, social expenditure protection was 23% of
GDP and it comprised 54% of the overall state budget in that
year. 40% of the expenditure was devoted to social security
programs, primarily old age benefits and child allowances.
Of the expenditure devoted to direct services, education is
the major item. State expenditure on education reached 6.8%
of GDP in 2003 one third of the social expenditure was devoted
to education. Health expenditure was a second major focus
of government expenditure for social protection. The state
funds approximately half of national health spending and its
contribution reached 3.2% of GDP (Kop, 2003).
Despite the comprehensive nature of the Israeli welfare state
and its level of social expenditure, poverty levels and inequality
in Israel are higher than those in most other developed welfare
states. In 2002, 17.7% of the population lived below the poverty
level (a relative definition set at below 50% of the median
income is used) and the GINI measure for net income inequality
was 0.362. Poverty is particularly high among Arab families
(38%), families with over four children 43.5%, and single
parent families 25.3%. Child poverty is also high in Israel
and has remained stable over the last decade. In 2002, 28.1%
of all children in Israel lived in families with incomes below
the official poverty line (National Insurance Institute, 2003;
Ben-Arieh, Zionit, Krizak, 2003).
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Child, Youth and Family Policy Regimes
Maternity, Paternity, Parental,
and Family Leaves
In Israel, the cost of hospitalization for birth is covered
by the state health insurance program and mothers are also
granted a lump sum maternity grant, equivalent to 20% of the
average monthly wage, to cover the cost of initial equipment
for the baby. Israel has a 12 week maternity leave program,
six of which can be taken before the expected birth. During
this period, an insured mother (i.e., a mother who has completed
the minimal qualification period of contribution to the state
social insurance fund for at least six month) is eligible
for a taxed maternity allowance that is equivalent to 100%
of her average daily income in the three month period preceding
the birth. She is also eligible for another nine month of
unpaid leave following the 12 week paid leave period. Since
1995, fathers may take parental leave instead of the mother,
from the seventh week following the birth, and they are also
eligible for a parental allowance for a period of up to 42
days (National Insurance Institute, 2003; Ben-Arieh, Zionit,
Krizak, 2003).
By law, full time working mothers are eligible to work an
hour less per day during the four months following the completion
of their maternity leave. Parents are also granted up to six
days a year fully paid sick leave in order to care for sick
children under the age of 16. The parents can chose which
of them takes leave for this task.
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Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)
Most Jewish children between the ages 2-5 are in pre-school
or in child-care programs (starting with some 30% at the age
of 2 and reaching to more than 95% among the 3-5 age group).
These programs vary from part-time (a full school day) to
full-work day. Most children participate in part-day programs
(from 8:00-13:00, six days a week). As for the Arab children,
only 45% of the 3 year olds participate in such programs,
54% of the 4 year olds and more than 71% of those at the age
of 5 (Ben-Arieh, Zionit, Krizak, 2003). Most younger children
attend special programs that are operated by voluntary associations
in particular, religious and women's organizations. Nevertheless
there is clear evidence of growth in the role of the private
for profit sector in this field (Efrat, Ben-Arieh, Gal &
Haj-Yahia, 1998).
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Family Allowances
The first child allowance program was introduced
in Israel in 1959 but it was only in 1975 that the program
became universal. During the mid 1980's, selective elements
were introduced into the program but various implementation
difficulties and political pressure led to the re-universalization
of the child allowance program in 1992 (Gordon & Eliav,
1998). Child allowances are granted to all families with one
or more children under the age of 18. The allowances are untaxed
and increase according to the number of children. In 2003
the allowance for a single child was equivalent to 1.9% of
the average monthly wage. For a family with four children,
the allowance is equivalent to 15.8% of the average wage.
In addition, single parent families and large families receive
an annual study grant per child which is about 13% of the
average monthly wage. The study grant covers part of the expenditures
beyond the free tuition such as books, supplies, field trips
and social activities, and is granted to children between
the ages of 6 to 14 (National Insurance Institute, 2003).
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Child and Family Tax Benefits
The Israeli income tax system includes a number
of tax benefits targeted upon families. In general, the filing
unit for income taxes is the individual, with husbands and
wives being taxed independently. Tax benefits points, which
result in lower taxes, are granted to single parent families,
to women, to working women for each of her children under
the age of 18, and to an individual earner. It is estimated
that family tax benefits resulted in a tax loss of 1530 million
shekels in 2000, which is approximately 6% of all income lost
due to tax expenditures (State Revenue Authority, 2000).
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Child Support
Israel adopted an alimony law in 1972, which
is intended to ensure that divorced woman, with a judgment
for alimony and custody of a child, are eligible to receive
income support from the state. The benefit is mean-tested
and administered on a national level by the National Insurance
Institute. The level of the benefit is equivalent to the level
set by the court in the alimony judgment but it cannot exceed
the level of a regular Income Support Benefit (public assistance).
In effect, the average level of alimony payments in Israel
is 19.3% of the average wage and it is paid to 26,500 women
(National Insurance Institute, 2003).
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Child and Adolescent Health
Israel's maternal and child health system is universal and
highly effective. The mother and baby welfare clinics offer
services for the pregnant mother as well as for children between
the ages of 0-4. Those services have take-up rates of well
over 90% and thus play a major role in achiving low infant
and maternal mortality rates. The health records of children
follow them after they enter the compulsory education system,
and there they become the responsibility of the school health
services.
Medical care in Israel is mostly in public hands and all
citizens are entitled to coverage universal health insurance
program which is financed by taxation and personal payment.
However, medical care is forbidden from being contingent on
payment (National Health Insurance Legislation, 1995).
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Housing Benefits
There are no specific housing benefit programs
for families with children in Israel. However, two state programs
intended to provide assistance in covering housing costs do
relate to family size as a major criterion when deciding upon
eligibility and the level of assistance. The first program
is a government subsidized mortgage which provides low interest
mortgage to families according to three main criteria, one
of which is the size of the family. A second program grants
state assistance in rent payments to low income families for
a period of up to three years. Family size and income level
are the two main criteria for determining eligibility and
benefit level in this program.
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School-Aged Children: Policies
and Programs
Israel has no coherent policy or services for
school aged children, apart from that of the formal education.
Nevertheless it is apparent that Israeli children are active
in youth movements and other activities in the local setting
of community centers and municipal organizations. Most of
the school-aged children are involved in social activities
and interaction after school hours.
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Youth
Education is compulsory until the age of 16.
School enrollment rates for youth ages 14-17 are more than
97% and although they do drop slightly at the age of 17 these
rates are also on the rise. The picture is a bit different
when one looks at the Arab population, where school enrollment
rates are lower, especially so at the age of 17. Indeed, enrollment
rates at this age among Arab youths reach only 75.6% (Ben-Arieh,
Zionit, Krizak, 2003). Although decreasing, the rates of Israeli
youth who are involved in youth movements (political and non-political)
as well as in youth clubs and community centers is still high
around 45% (Ben -Arieh & Zionit, 1999).
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References
Asher Ben-Arieh and Yaffa Zionit, The State of The Child
in Israel - a Statistical Abstract (Jerusalem; National
Council for The Child, 1999, 2000).
Abraham Doron and Ralph M. Kramer, The Welfare State in
Israel. (Boulder: Westview, 1991).
Galia Efrat, Asher Ben-Arieh, John Gal and Muhammad Haj-Yahia,
Young Children in Israel; a Country Study (Jerusalem;
National Council for the Child, 1998).
Gosta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism.
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990).
John Gal, "Values, Categorical Benefits and Categorical Legacies
in Israel." In Asher Ben-Arieh and John Gal (editors), Into
the Promised Land: Issues in the Welfare State. (Westport:
Praeger, 2000 ).
Dalia Gordon and Tami Eliav, "Universality vs. Selectivity
in Child Allowances and the Limits of Implementation", Social
Security, Special English Edition, 5, 1998, pp. 115-126.
Yaacov Kop, Expenditure on Social Services, 1999.
(Jerusalem: The Israel Center for Social Policy Studies,1999).
National Health Insurance Legislation, 1996 National Insurance
Institute, National Insurance Programs in Israel. (Jerusalem:
National Insurance Institute, 2000).
National Insurance Institute, Annual Survey 1998/99.
(Jerusalem: National Insurance Institute, 2000).
State Revenue Authority, Annual Report 1999. (Jerusalem:
Ministry of Finance, 2000).
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Contacts
Washington Embassy
- 3514 International Dr., NW
- Washington, D.C. 20008
- Tel: 202-364-5500
- Fax: 202-364-5423
Country Contacts
- Dr. John Gal Lecturer, Paul Baerwald School of Social
Work
- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
- Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem 91905 Israel
- Tel:972-2-5881308
- Fax:972-2-5823587
- E-mail: msjgsw@mscc.huji.ac.il
- Dr. Asher Ben-Arieh
- Associate Director for Research and Development,
- Israel National Council for the Child,
- and Lecturer, Paul Baerwald School of Social Work,
- The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- 20 Metudela St. Jerusalem 92306 Israel
- Tel: 972-2-5639191
- Fax: 972-2-5636869
- E-mail: benarieh@cc.huji.ac.il
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