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(last updated January 2001)
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Introduction and Overview
Families and children, and indeed issues of
fertility, have played a major role in Israeli social policy
in the years since the state was established. As a result,
in various fields of social policy Israel has adopted pro-family
policies. These include family allowances, child and family
tax benefits, a well-developed system of health services for
young children and high levels of expenditure on education.
Israel is characterized by a high fertility level, by a large
proportion of children in the population and by relatively
low levels of divorce and single parenthood.
The Israeli welfare state combines an adherence
to the Beveridge social insurance model with an emphasis on
social assistance provision for the poor. While during the
1970s Israel moved closer to the Nordic social-democratic
welfare state model, the last two decades have seen a growing
emphasis upon privatization, welfare state retrenchment and
attempts by decision-makers to put a cap on social spending.
Today, levels of social expenditure are lower than those in
the more developed welfare states.
Despite the emphasis on family policies, the
relatively comprehensive welfare state and the levels of social
expenditure, the effectiveness of the Israeli welfare state
in combating social gaps and poverty has been very limited.
Poverty levels in general, and child poverty levels in particular,
are higher than in most other welfare states. This is particularly
true for the Arab minority.
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Highlights
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highlights in pdf format.
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Government Agencies
Responsibility for child and family policies
is divided among a number of ministries and governmental institutions.
There is no governmental mechanism to coordinate among them.
The Israeli parliament (Knesset) has established a Committee
on the Status of Woman and recently also a Committee for the
Status of Children. The main responsibilities are divided
among the different ministries as follows. Child allowances,
maternity cash benefits, maternity leaves as well as all the
other social security benefits are the responsibility of the
National Insurance Institute. The Ministry of Health is responsible
for health care and for the universal system of mother and
baby welfare clinics. The Ministry for Labor and Social affairs
is responsible for all social services as well as for day-care
services for children ages 0-3 and the day-care services for
older children of working mothers. Day-care and educational
services for children older than 3 are the responsibility
of the Ministry of Education.
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Demographic and Other Social Trends
With a population of just over 6 million inhabitants (2000),
Israel is not only a small country, but also a very young
one. Some 10 percent of the population is over age 65. Some
34% of the population are children under the age of 18. Israel
is also unique in the heterogeneity of its child population.
Some 25% of children are Arabs, who in turn are divided into
Muslims, Christians and Druze. Approximately 14% of the children
are immigrants who arrived in the country druing the last
decade, mostly from the former USSR and Ethiopia. About 10%
of the children are Ultra-Orthodox Jews and, finally, there
is still much evidence of a cleavage between children in families
of European origin (Ashkeanzim) and those of African or Asian
origin (Sephardim). With regard to family formation, Israel
still remains a traditional society, although the rate of
single parent families with children is on the rise (especially
among new immigrants from the former USSR). The proportion
of lone parents families among all families is still relatively
low - 8.6%. The same is true for divorce rates, which are
definitely on the rise but are still low. As to participation
in the work force there are particularly low participation
rates among Arab woman and ultra-orthodox Jewish men (Efrat,
Ben-Arieh, Gal & Haj-Yahia, 1998; Ben-Arieh & Zionit, 2000).
Early in 2001 the unemployment rate was almost nine percent
despite strong economic growth.
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Social Protection
The Israeli welfare state combines an adherence to the Beveridge
social insurance model with an emphasis on social assistance
provision for the poor. Benefit levels are relatively low
and, like Britain and other liberal welfare states, Israel
places great emphasis upon the provision of social insurance
through free market mechanisms, particularly through the widespread
existence of occupational pensions for the elderly, with state
programs intended to serve as a safety net and supplement
(Doron and Kramer 1991). In addition, historically non-contributory
and non-means tested benefits have also played a major role
in the Israeli welfare state (Gal, 2000). While the Israeli
welfare state was clearly modeled on the Beveridge model when
it was first established during the 1950's, it moved closer
to the Social-Democratic model during the 1970's with the
introduction of more wage-related benefits, wider coverage
of needs and better indexing of benefit levels. Nevertheless,
the Israeli welfare state would appear to be closer to the
liberal (Anglo-American and "free market") welfare state ideal
type than any of the other welfare state regimes in the Esping-Andersen
(1990) typology. Moreover, decision-makers in Israel during
the last decade and a half have been publicly committed to
cutting welfare expenditure and to placing emphasis upon individual
meeting of needs through the market. Apart from social security,
Israel has a national health insurance program that effectively
provides relatively comprehensive health services to all citizens.
Education, between the ages of 5 and 15, is compulsory and
free and is usually provided by state schools. The state subsidizes
housing for low income and immigrant families.
Social expenditure in Israel has grown over the last decade
and during the latter part of the 1990's reached just over
20% of GDP. In 1999, social expenditure protection was 23%
of GDP and it comprised 53.5% of the overall state budget
in that year. A third of the expenditure (36.3%) was devoted
to social security programs, primarily old age benefits and
child allowances. Of the expenditure devoted to direct services,
education is the major source of expenditure. State expenditure
on education reached 6.8% of GDP in 1999. Health expenditure
was a second major focus of government expenditure for social
protection. The state funds approximately half of national
health spending and its contribution reached 3.8% of GDP (Kop,
1999).
Despite the comprehensive nature of the Israeli welfare state
and its level of social expenditure, poverty levels and inequality
in Israel are higher than those in most other developed welfare
states. In 1998, 16.6% of the population lived below the poverty
level (a relative definition set at below 50% of the median
income is used) and the GINI measure for net income inequality
was 0.348. Poverty is particularly high among Arab families
(38%), families with over four children (35%), and single
parent families (24.7%). Child poverty is also high in Israel
and has remained stable over the last decade. In 1998, 22.8%
of all children in Israel lived in families with incomes below
the official poverty line (National Insurance Institute, 2000).
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Child, Youth and Family Policy Regimes
Maternity, Paternity, Parental,
and Family Leaves
In Israel, the cost of hospitalization for birth is covered
by the state health insurance program and mothers are also
granted a lump sum maternity grant, equivalent to 20% of the
average monthly wage, to cover the cost of initial equipment
for the baby. Israel has a 12 week maternity leave program,
six of which can be taken before the expected birth. During
this period, an insured mother (i.e., a mother who has completed
the minimal qualification period of contribution to the state
social insurance fund for at least six months) is eligible
for a taxed maternity allowance that is equivalent to 100%
of her average daily income in the three month period preceding
the birth (National Insurance Institute, 2000). She is also
eligible for another nine months of unpaid leave following
the 12 week paid leave period. Since 1995, fathers may take
parental leave instead of the mother, from the seventh week
following the birth, and they are also eligible for a parental
allowance for a period of up to 42 days.
By law, full time working mothers are eligible to work an
hour less per day during the four months following the completion
of their maternity leave. Parents are also granted up to six
days a year fully paid sick leave in order to care for sick
children under the age of 16. The parents can chose which
of them takes leave for this task.
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Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)
Most Jewish children between the ages of 2-5 are in pre-school
or in child-care programs (starting with some 70% at the age
of 2 and reaching to more than 95% among the 3-5 age group).
These program vary from part-time ( a full school day) to
full-work day. Most children participate in part-day programs
(from 8:00-13:00, six days a week). As for Arab children,
only 45% of the 3 year olds participate in such programs,
72% of the 4 year olds and more than 90% of those at the age
of 5 (Ben-Arieh & Zionit, 1999). Most younger children attend
special programs that are operated by voluntary associations
in particular, religious and women's organizations. Nevertheless
there is clear evidence of growth in the role of the private
for profit sector in this field (Efrat, Ben-Arieh, Gal & Haj-Yahia,
1998).
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Family Allowances
The first child allowance program was introduced
in Israel in 1959 but it was only in 1975 that the program
became universal. During the mid-1980s, selective elements
were introduced into the program but various implementation
difficulties and political pressure led to the re-universalisation
of the child allowance program in 1992 (Gordon & Eliav, 1998).
Child allowances are granted to all families with one or more
children under the age of 18. The allowances are untaxed and
increase according to the number of children, with the allowance
for a single child equivalent to 2.6% of the average monthly
wage. For a family with four children, the allowance is equivalent
to 20.5% of the average wage. In addition, single parent families
and large families receive an annual study grant per child
which is set at 18% of the average monthly wage. The study
grant covers part of the expenditures beyond the free tuition
such as books, supplies, field trips, and social activities,
and is granted to children between the ages of 8 to 14 years.
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Child and Family Tax Benefits
The Israeli income tax system includes a number
of tax benefits targeted upon families. In general, the filing
unit for income taxes is the individual, with husbands and
wives being taxed independently. Tax benefit points, which
result in lower taxes, are granted to single parent families,
to women, to working women for each of her children under
the age of 18, and to an individual earner, who is responsible
for the upkeep of his or her partner. It is estimated that
family tax benefits will result in a tax loss of 1530 million
shekels in 2000, which is approximately 6% of all income lost
due to tax expenditures (State Revenue Authority, 2000).
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Child Support
Israel adopted an alimony law in 1972, which
is intended to ensure that divorced women, with a judgement
for alimony and custody of a child, are eligible to receive
income support from the state. The benefit is means-tested
and administered on a national level by the National Insurance
Institute. The level of the benefit is equivalent to the level
set by the court in the alimony judgement but it cannot exceed
the level of a regular Income Support benefit (social or public
assistance). In effect, the average level of alimony payments
in Israel is 19.4% of the average wage and it is paid to 24,500
women.
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Child and Adolescent Health
Israel's maternal and child health system is universal and
highly effective. The mother and baby welfare clinics offers
services for the pregnant mother as well as for children between
the ages of 0-4. Those services have take-up rates of well
over 90% and thus play a major role in achieving low infant
and maternal mortality rates. The health records of children
follow them after they enter the compulsory education system,
and there they become the responsibility of the school health
services.
Medical care in Israel is mostly in public hands and all
citizens are entitled to coverage universal health insurance
program which is financed by taxation and personal payment.
However, medical care is forbidden from being contingent on
payment (National Health Insurance Legislation, 1995).
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Housing Benefits
There are no specific housing benefit programs
for families with children in Israel. However, two state programs
intended to provide assistance in covering housing costs do
relate to family size as a major criterion when deciding upon
eligibility and the level of assistance. The first program
is a government subsidized mortgage program which provides
low interest mortgages to families according to three main
criteria, one of which is the size of the family. A second
program grants state assistance in rent payments to low income
families for a period of up to three years. Family size and
income level are the two main criteria for determining eligibility
and benefit level in this program.
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School-Aged Children: Policies
and Programs
Israel has no coherent policy or services for
school aged children, apart from that of the formal education.
Nevertheless it is apparent that Israeli children are very
active in youth movements and that through the local settings
of community centers and municipal organization most of the
school aged children are involved in social activities and
interaction after school hours.
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Youth
Education is compulsory until the age of 16.
School enrollment rates for youth ages 14-17 are well above
the 90% level and although they do drop slightly at the age
of 17 these rates are also on the rise. The picture is a bit
different when one looks at the Arab population, where school
enrollment rates are lower, especially so at the age of 17
(Ben-Arieh & Zionit, 2000). Indeed, enrollment rates at this
age among Arab youths reach only 67.4%. Although decreasing,
the rates of Israeli youth who are involved in youth movements
(political and non-political) as well as in youth clubs and
community centers is still high - around 45% (Ben-Arieh &
Zionit, 1999).
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References
Asher Ben-Arieh and Yaffa Zionit, The State of The Child
in Israel - a Statistical Abstract (Jerusalem; National
Council for The Child, 1999, 2000).
Abraham Doron and Ralph M. Kramer, The Welfare State in
Israel. (Boulder: Westview, 1991).
Galia Efrat, Asher Ben-Arieh, John Gal and Muhammad Haj-Yahia,
Young Children in Israel; a Country Study (Jerusalem;
National Council for the Child, 1998).
Gosta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism.
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990).
John Gal, "Values, Categorical Benefits and Categorical Legacies
in Israel." In Asher Ben-Arieh and John Gal (editors), Into
the Promised Land: Issues in the Welfare State. (Westport:
Praeger, 2000 ).
Dalia Gordon and Tami Eliav, "Universality vs. Selectivity
in Child Allowances and the Limits of Implementation", Social
Security, Special English Edition, 5, 1998, pp. 115-126.
Yaacov Kop, Expenditure on Social Services, 1999.
(Jerusalem: The Israel Center for Social Policy Studies,1999).
National Health Insurance Legislation, 1996 National Insurance
Institute, National Insurance Programs in Israel. (Jerusalem:
National Insurance Institute, 2000).
National Insurance Institute, Annual Survey 1998/99.
(Jerusalem: National Insurance Institute, 2000).
State Revenue Authority, Annual Report 1999. (Jerusalem:
Ministry of Finance, 2000).
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Contacts
Washington Embassy
3514 International Dr., NW
Washington, D.C. 20008
Tel: 202-364-5500
Fax: 202-364-5423
Country Contacts
Dr. John Gal Lecturer, Paul Baerwald School of Social
Work
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem 91905 Israel
Tel:972-2-5881308
Fax:972-2-5823587
E-mail: msjgsw@mscc.huji.ac.il
Dr. Asher Ben-Arieh
Associate Director for Research and Development,
Israel National Council for the Child,
and Lecturer, Paul Baerwald School of Social Work,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
20 Metudela St. Jerusalem 92306 Israel
Tel: 972-2-5639191
Fax: 972-2-5636869
E-mail: benarieh@cc.huji.ac.il
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