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(last
updated October 2001)
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Introduction and Overview
Denmark does not have an explicit family policy and there is no one
overall family policy statement. Denmark--among the child and family policy
leaders in the OECD world--is a proto-typical Nordic welfare state:
developed and supported historically by a strong labor union and Social
Democratic party alliance (and sustained under political change),
universal, with generous and comprehensive policies, and "with support
for transfers between generations. It is also a gender friendly welfare
state…giving both sexes opportunities and possibilities of combining work
and family life by [a] very extensive coverage with services"(1).
While state and "social partners" (business and labor) share a
consensus social contract and take the lead on labor-market matters, the
municipality (275 local authorities) is the locus of a decentralized system
of service delivery, including fields dealt with elsewhere nationally. Thus
the municipalities are the paymasters for many cash benefits, but not family
allowances, which are administered by the ministry of taxation. As is the
case in Sweden, Denmark has one of the highest rates of social expenditure
as a proportion of GDP in the OECD world, assigns 6 percent of GDP to child
and family benefits and services, and is also unusual, sharing with other
Nordic countries the dedication of as much or more money for services
(especially child care) as for family cash benefits.
While the economic situation of the late 1980s and early 1990s
threatened program financing and resulted in what Americans would consider
very modest family and child policy cutbacks, Denmark's mid-1990 economic
recovery was followed by a restoration of cuts and further positive
developments(2).
1995 Eurostat education statistics show Denmark with a (comparatively)
excellent record in the percent of the population with more than a lower
secondary education. As a result, "the country now has the most
educated workforce in the EU." Much attention is given to vocational
education and training and to student drop-outs.(3)
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Highlights
Click here to view or print country
highlights in pdf format.
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Government Agencies
Responsibility for child and family policies is spread among a number of
functional ministries, but in recent years a coordinating Inter-Ministerial
Committee on Children has been striving for coherence and a holistic
orientation to families. There is also a coordinating policy mechanism in
the Parliament. Municipal social service departments with
multi-disciplinary staffs do not compartmentalize broad-based universal
developmental services and those for children and youth in trouble or at
risk. Family Allowances are the responsibility of the Ministry of Taxation,
health care and health visitors are under the Minister of Health, and child
care is under the Minister of Social Affairs and the Minister of Education.
Cash maternity benefits also are under "social affairs" but other
aspects are under health. Other family cash aid is under social affairs.
A Child Council (permanent since 1998) has a "watchdog" role,
fosters genuine child "participation" as feasible in personal and
program choice, and assesses the conditions of children in the light of the
U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child.
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Demographic and Other Social Trends
With its population of some 5.3 million (1998), Denmark (like all Nordic
countries) is one of Europe's smallest. About 17.6 percent of the
population are under-15s, a bit below the EU proportions. In 1999, 73.5
percent of all women 16-66 were in the labor force. They constitute 46% of
the labor force, a number exceeded only by Finland. In 1996, 92% of mothers
and 96% of fathers were in the labor force. Of women ages 30-50, 86% worked
full time. Almost one quarter of all women in the labor force (below the EU
average) were part-time workers, but on average fathers worked 42 hours and
mothers 36 hours weekly (1996). High divorce and separation rates and
socially-acceptable cohabitation give Denmark high lone parent totals,
depending on definition. Most young children in fact live with two adults.
Denmark follows Finland in the lead in the age (under 21) at which half
of all young people have left the parental home according to the EU 2001
report. Denmark and Finland lead in the percentage of young people ages
16-29 who are cohabitating (over 40%).(4)
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Social Protection
The context is that of a generous Scandinavian welfare state which evolved
during the period when Bismark was developing social insurance in Germany,
but was based in the peasantry and an enlightened mercantile class. It has
emphasized universalism, rather than contributory benefits-but the pattern
is not pure. (There have been some departures from universalism in recent
years). Nonetheless, most benefits are flat rate. Danish unemployment
insurance has been generous, but its labor market policies have not been
dramatically "active" in the Swedish sense. A general national
health service covers everyone and has no "insurance"
(contributory) features. The national health service involves a publicly
funded and administered delivery system. Co-payments are low. Social
assistance has been generous, comparatively, since the 1970's, offering a
living standard that is viable. While overall housing policy is modest by
European norms and there is considerable reliance on the market in this
field, grants to the poor-which are means tested-are graduated and
contribute substantially to a decent housing standard for most low-income
families with children. Education on all levels is public, universal, of
high quality, and accessible.
Denmark social expenditures as a portion of GDP are high comparatively
(33.6 percent, compared to a European average of 28.7 in 1996). A Eurostat
analysis for 1999 found that in standardized ECU's, adjusted by PPP, the
average European country spent 5120 ECU's per head for social programs.
Denmark (6884) led Germany (6351), Sweden (6119), France (5608), and U.K.
(4839). Moreover it assigned 12.0 percent of those expenditures to family
and child benefits, more than Sweden (11.2) and far more than the other
listed countries. (These results are consistent with ranks on per capita
GDP.)
According to a report from the Unicef Innocenti Center, Denmark ranks
7th among 19 OECD countries in per capita GDP, but it is third in a ranking
of lowest child poverty, employing a U.S. poverty line. It has the 6th best
record (5.1 percent) in poverty by the European standard of less than 50
percent of the median. The comparable U.S. rate is 22.4 percent. Some 13.8
lone parent Danish families (15.2 percent of all children) are poor by this
standard, compared with 3.6 percent of other families(5).
An EU 2001 report notes that Denmark like Ireland, Netherlands, and
Luxembourg has one of the best performances in going from high pre-transfer
poverty to low post-transfer poverty (relative). Only 49% of children under
16 live in poverty.(6)
In accord with a universalism philosophy, Danish social benefits are not
based on social security contributions by employers or employees. The
Danish welfare state is financed by the VAT and the individual income tax
(and it is individual, providing for equal treatment of different family
types).
A Danish expert notes that despite divorce and considerable non-marital
cohabitation, once a child is 6 months to a year old, "the daily life
of the average Danish family with children….is a daily life with two
parents who are both active in the labor market"(7).
This does not occur without societal support. She adds,
"Emphasis on the
individual has resulted in special attention being given to children and to
families with children. This direction of family policy has become
increasingly visible over the last ten years, assuming a shape which makes
it possible to speak of Danish family policy in terms of a focus on child
policy, in spite of extensive quantitative (economic benefits) and
qualitative (support of parents' care taking functions) services"(8).
Danish institutions show much interest in ensuring each child "a
good childhood" and optimum personal growth and development as well as
(more recently) in early acquisition of needed knowledge and skills. The
children's rights message of the Universal Declaration of Children's Rights
is taken very seriously. A strong group supports the concept of childhood
as a stage in itself, needing to be protected and enhanced and not only as a
precursor to something later. And the combination of policies and services
means that Denmark has virtually no child poverty or homelessness and that
Danish health records are outstanding.
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Child, Youth and Family Policies
Maternity, Paternity, Parental, and Family Leaves
"Denmark has a 28-week
paid and job protected maternity leave of which 2 weeks can be used before
expected birth. Ten weeks of the post childbirth leave are available to either
parent and an additional four weeks can be taken only by fathers. The cash
benefit provided while on leave is equal to about 60 percent of prior wages
(up to a maximum), but most employers top this off, so that in effect most
working parents receive their full wage while on leave (Moss and Devin,
1999). In addition, a supplementary one-year parental (or child care) leave
was enacted in 1992, paid through the unemployment benefit system at the
rate of 60 percent of the maximum unemployment benefit (now 90 percent,
authors). The first 6 months are a guaranteed right and the second has to
be in agreement with the employer. Nonetheless, in effect, working parents
now have between 1 1/2 and 2 years paid leave following childbirth"(9).
Denmark does not match those countries with generous benefits permitting
care of a sick child. There is no statutory right to such leave, but all
public sector and most private sector workers have the right through
workplace policies to remain at home with full pay for the first day of a
child's illness. What apparently occurs is that the mother remains at home
the first day, the grandmother the second, perhaps the father on the third.
Then the mother, if needed, will report in sick and use her own sick days
for sick child care. This is regarded by some child advocates as an area
requiring attention.
On the other hand, a 1990 amendment to Denmark's Social Security Act
makes it possible for a parent to stop work to care for a seriously ill
child under age 14. The income replacement corresponds to what the parent
would have been entitled to as a sickness benefit and may cover fifty-two
weeks over eighteen calendar months.
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Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)
As is common in Europe, most children ages 3-5 in Denmark are in
pre-school programs. In addition, however, with almost all mothers of young
children in the labor force, as are almost all parents in two-adult families,
Denmark has been leading Europe in infant and toddler care. (64 percent of
those aged 6 months-2 then 91 percent of the 3-5's in 1999).
"Child care quality declined somewhat in the early 1990's, albeit
from an exceptionally high baseline (lower staff: child ratios, larger
groups) but there is a beginning return to earlier standards and conviction
that quality matters and should be sustained. Given earlier economic
problems, it is understandable that the first priority has been to assure a
full supply of places for all children with employed parents or with
special needs. The basic guarantee has been largely met, but there are some
shortages in care during irregular or unusual hours (at night; during
weekends). Apart from filling these needs, the current intention on the
part of the Ministry, is to extend coverage to the children of unemployed
and at-home parents who wish their children to participate. As essential as
child care/preschool is if women with young children are to be in the labor
force, there is growing conviction that these programs are important for
all children whatever their parents' employment status"(10).
Danish child policy values childhood as an important stage as of itself and
children as social actors while all the various ECEC programs are designed
to contribute to a "safe and secure childhood", great value is
placed on enabling children to "share the responsibility for their own
daily life depending on their age and developmental stage".(11)
Denmark was part of a 2000 OECD review of ECEC in twelve countries.
Consult the full Danish report on line or download it at: http://www1.oecd.org/els/pdfs/EDSECECDOCA015.pdf
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Family Allowances
After some experimentation with shifts to means-testing its benefits and
other benefit variations from the 1950s through the 1980s, Denmark has
restored its universal approach, convinced of its rightness for child
policy. The allowances, which are higher for the 0-2s than for the 3-6s,
and higher for the latter than for the 7-17s are relatively generous by
European standards. They are untaxed. They affect poverty rates modestly.
There are also important untaxed supplements: for a child in a one-parent
household or in a two parent household where one has had long
hospitalization; if the allowance is the sole source of income of a single
custodial parent; for orphans who have lost both parents. There are special
multiple-birth allowances until age 7. There also is an adoption allowance.
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Child and Family Tax Benefits
Danish taxes focus on the individual with earnings or other income. Family
structure has no significance. There are no special family tax deductions.
A European Commission report in the early 1990s, stated that Denmark uses
its tax system for family policy less than any country in the Community.
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Child Support
When non-custodial parents fail to pay
assigned child support or pay it late, the local social welfare office
advances the payment. The typical grant level was about four percent of an
average annual wage in the mid-1990's and went to about 15 percent of
children. They are separate from child allowances. Payments are in advance,
semi-annual, and continue to age 18. There payments are not considered as
social assistance, nor do they count as income if there is an application
for social assistance or a means-tested rent subsidy.
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Other Child Conditioned Income Transfers
See family allowances regarding survivor benefits. Also adoption
allowances and social assistance. Special benefit to help keep a disabled
child at home.
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Child and Adolescent Health
Denmark's maternal and child health program has long been considered an
exemplar. Apart from the excellent infant mortality, maternal mortality,
and morbidity results-much of which is attributed to a generally
progressive social policy and the related standard of living-the program
has been seen as the nucleus of a family supportive health and social
service effort, geared to case finding and early intervention.
All Danish medical care is a public service, financed by the tax system,
not differentiated by income. Families choose their primary physician and
may make a change once in six months. Referrals to specialists are
available. From the time of birth notification, home health visiting,
routine check-ups until the child is 6, an innoculation schedule, and a
pattern of parent education and support combine in an exemplar program.
Children are monitored and served by a municipality-based health system,
closely integrated with the personal social services. The same service
works closely with the child care facilities. Every child to the end of
school has a health "passport". When compulsory school begins
(6/7), the school health service takes over. The patterns and frequencies
are adapted to family circumstances and needs. The nurses, who are
well-trained, continue with annual sight and hearing tests and health
education through the school years. The health care system includes dental
care to age 18. Adolescents have comparably comprehensive service.
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School-Aged Children: Policies and Programs
Education is compulsory
between ages 7-16, and almost all children attend a one-year pre-school in
a system which seeks to integrate ECEC and early elementary philosophies
and experience.
A Danish expert provides a
report on provision and participation.
"After school hours
many children will go to a public after-school centre for 6-9 year-old
children or a school based recreation scheme for the same age group. 60 per
cent of all 6-9 year-old children are registered in such a public day-care
facility. The local authorities must also provide the necessary club and
other socio-educational leisure time facilities for children from the age
of 10 and for young people. Clubs are social and cultural leisure-time
services for the age group who no longer need to be looked after. The most
common forms are after-school clubs for 10-14 year-olds in the afternoon
and youth clubs for the 14-18 year-olds in the evening. The local
authorities are required to draw up aims and frameworks for club
activities, in order to provide a variety of good stimulating leisure-time
facilities. The aim of the social club legislation is particularly to
ensure that the needs of vulnerable groups are also looked after and met.
"In addition to public
services a large variety of leisure activities are made use of by
schoolchildren. More than 80 per cent of children aged 7-15 years
participate in some kind of scheduled leisure activity i.e. sports, scouts,
music etc. More than two thirds do sports of some kind and one fifth sing
or play an instrument…"(12).
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Youth
The income transfer and education benefit systems are seen as covering youth
allowances to 18, youth clubs, children's institutions, railroad travel to
holiday camps, and a 50/50 mix of education allowances and loans for those
who continue post-grade 10 education (usually age 16). As put by one Danish
expert:
"Local authorities are
also obliged to supply the necessary number of places in youth centres or
other necessary support measures for older children and adolescents. A new
act that came into effect on 1 July 1995 stipulates that youth centres
should always be part of a local authority's general child/youth policy
measures"(13).
Current rules give young people a statutory right to influence planning
and operation of these programs- and to express themselves on matters
affecting their own welfare.
Click here to view in pdf format a table on the Ages
at which children are legally entitled to carry out a series of acts in
European Union countries. See Youth Policies
section for definition of terms used.
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Housing Benefits
In general, families with children have adequate housing, 80 percent in
private houses and 20 percent in apartments. The local social service
authorities are charged with helping families with children "if they
have problems with housing, and provisions are available for subsidizing
the rent if necessary." At the end of 1998 some 83,000 households with
children received housing allowances. Homeless families with children
"are practically unknown in Denmark." Almost all live in homes
with indoor plumbing and central heating. Some 0.6 percent lack indoor
toilets(14).
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References
Peter Baldwin, The Politics of Social Solidarity. (Cambridge
University Press, 1994).
Danish Ministries of Social Affairs and Education, Early Childhood
Education and Care Policy in Denmark (OECD Thematic Review Series)
Copenhagen, 2000.
Eurostat, The Social Situation in the European Union, 2001
(Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,
2001).
Torben Fridberg, "Denmark", in John Ditch, et al., eds. Developments
in National Family Policies in 1996 (Brussels: European Commission,
1998).
Bent Greve, The Changing Universal Welfare Model: the Case of Denmark
Towards the 21st Century. (Denmark: Roskilde University, 1999).
Linda Haas and P. Hwang, "Parental leave in Sweden," in
Parental Leave: Progress or Pitfall?, edited by Peter Moss and Fred
Deven (Netherlands: Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute,
1999).
Innocenti Report Card, Issue No. 1, June, 2000. (Florence: Unicef
International Child Development Centre).
Alfred J. Kahn and Sheila B. Kamerman, Social Policy and the
Under-3s: Six Country Case Studies. (New York: Columbia University
School of Social Work, 1994).
Sheila B. Kamerman and Alfred J. Kahn, "Child and Family Policies
in an Era of Social Policy Retrenchment and Restructuring." In K.
Vleminckx and Tim Smeeding, editors. Child Well-Being in Modern Nations.
(Bristol, Eng.: The Policy Press, 2000, forthcoming).
Sheila B. Kamerman and Alfred J. Kahn, Starting Right: How America
Neglects its Youngest Children and What We Can Do About it. (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1995.
Daniel Levine, Poverty and Society. (New Brunswick: Rutgers
University Press, 1988).
Ministry of Social Affairs, Child and Family Policies
(Copenhagen: 1997).
Vita Bering-Pruzan, "Denmark" in John Ditch, Helen Barnes, and
Jonathan Bradshaw, editors, Developments in National Family Policies in
1996. (Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, 1998), pp.
15-36.
Vita Pruzan, "Family Policy in Denmark: Towards Individuation and a
Symmetrical Family Structure," in Wilfried Dumon, editor, Changing
Family Policies in the Member States of the European Union. (Brussels:
European Commission, 1995), pp. 35-55.
Tine Rostgaard, M. N. Christoffersen, & H. Weise, "Parental
leave in Denmark, in Parental Leave: Progress or Pitfall?, edited by Peter
Moss and Fred Deven (Netherlands: Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic
Institute, 1999).
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Notes
- Greve, p.9.
- Kamerman and Kahn in
Vleminckx and Smeeding.
- Eurostat, 1995
- Eurostat, 2001
- Innocenti Report
Card, figures 1,2,3.
- Eurostat, 2001
- Pruzan, 1996, p.15.
- Pruzan, 1995, pp.
35-36.
- See note 2, p. 507
in Moss and Deven.
- Ibid..
- Fridberg, 1998, p.
31.
- Fridberg, 1998, p.33.
- Pruzan, 1996, p.19.
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Contacts
Washington Embassy
Embassy of Denmark
3200 Whitehaven St., NW
Washington, DC 20008
Phone: (202) 234-4300
Fax: (202) 328-1470
Ministry
Mrs. Grete Hansen
Deputy Head of Division International Affairs
Ministry of Social Affairs
Homens Kanal 22
1060 Copenhagen K
Phone: 45 (33) 92 93 40
Fax: 45 (33) 92 93 36
Email: dpgrh@sm.dk
Mrs. Grethe Fenger Moller
Department Ministry of Social Affairs
Holmens Kanal 22
1060 Copenhagen K
Email: dpgfm@sm.dk
European Union Family Observatory National Representative
Jens Bonke
Social Forsknings Instituttet
Herluf Trolles Gade 11
DK-1052 Copenhagen
Phone:45-33-48 08 86
Fax: 45-33-48 08 33
Email: jeb@sfi.dk
Website: http://www.sfi.dk
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Introduction and Overview
Highlights
Government Agencies
Demographic and Other Social Trends
Social Protection
Maternity, Paternity,Parental, and Family Leaves
Early
Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)
Family Allowances
Child and Family Tax Benefits
Child Support
Other Child-Conditioned Income Transfers
Child and Adolescent Health
School-Aged Children: Policies and Programs
Youth
Housing Benefits
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