Malaysia*
(Last updated February 2007)
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Introduction and Overview 1Located in Southeast Asia, south of Vietnam, Malaysia consists of the Malaysian peninsula bordering Thailand and the northern one-third of the island of Borneo, East Malaysia, bordering Indonesia, Brunei and the South China Sea. Slightly larger than New Mexico, Malaysia covers a land area of 126,853 sq. miles. The Federation of Malaysia was formed in 1963. In 1965, Singapore withdrew from the Malaysian federation and in 1966 Indonesia ended its economic, political, diplomatic, and military "confrontation" of Malaysia. Since then Malaysia faced two struggles of insurgency from within the country. Both ended with the signing of peace accords. East and West Malaysia are separated by about 640 km (about 400 mi) of the South China Sea, and together comprise an area of 329,758 sq km (127,320 sq mi), with West Malaysia accounting for about 60 percent of this total. Peninsular Malaysia (East Malaysia) extends more than 800 km (500 mi) from north to south and spans 330 km (205 mi) at its widest point. Numerous small islands lie off the coast, including Langkaw (Pulau Langkawi) and Pinang off the northwest coast, and Tioman, a popular tourist destination off the southeast coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The states of Sarawak and Sabah (on Borneo), and the federal territory of Labuan (an island off the coast of Sabah) make up East Malaysia. On Borneo, East Malaysia has a maximum width of 275 km (171 mi) and extends about 1,130 km (about 700 mi) in length. Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with a bicameral federal legislature and unicameral state legislatures. Malaysia is nominally headed by The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (king or supreme sovereign). The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected to a five-year term among the nine hereditary Sultans of the Malay states; the other four states, which have titular Governors, do not participate in the selection. This makes Malaysia an elective monarchy. The King appoints the Prime Minister and a cabinet on the advice of the prime minister. The Prime Minister is designated from among the members of the House of Representatives; following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins a plurality of seats in the House of Representatives becomes the Prime Minister. The Bicameral federal parliament consists of a Senate (Dewan Negara, the upper house) and a House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat, the lower house). The Senate has 69 members, 26 elected from the state legislatures, and 43 appointed by the king. The House of Representatives has 219 directly elected members. The Senate serves a six-year term of office and the House of Representatives a five-year term. The last elections for the House of Representatives were held on March 21, 2004. Malaysia has a three-tier government structure: federal, state and local. There are 24 federal ministries, in addition to a number of departments and agencies. The Cabinet is the highest coordinating executive body of all government activities and interests. Legislative authority in Malaysia is in the hands of the Parliament, which comprises the Senate, House of Representatives and the Yang Di-Pertuan Agong who heads the Legislative Council. The Legislative Council functions as the law maker and has the authority to raise taxes and authorize expenditure. Legislative power is shared between the Federal Government and State Government and is systematically distributed in a Federal List, State List and a Concurrent List.
The State Governments are headed by ceremonial State Rulers. The Ruler acts on the advice of the State Executive Council that is chaired by the Chief Minister. All the states have unicameral legislatures and elections are held every five years. In the states where there is no hereditary ruler a governor is appointed by the King to be the ceremonial Head of State. The State legislature has the autonomy to pass any law so long as it is consistent with federal laws. Malaysia has 13 states. Local government comprises two levels, district administration, and local authorities. There are two types of local governments, municipality for large towns, and district council for small urban centers. [Encarta, 2006] The federal government is currently formed by a coalition of 14 parties; the largest party in the coalition being the United Malays National Organization (UMNO). As of December 2006, the Chief of State is Tuanku SYED SIRAJUDDIN ibni Almarhum Tuanku Syed Putra Jamalullail and the Prime Minister is ABDULLAH bin Ahmad Badawi and the Deputy Prime Minister is Mohamed NAJIB bin Abdul Razak. Malaysia, a middle-income country, transformed itself from 1971 through the late 1990s from a producer of raw materials into an emerging multi-sector economy. Growth was almost exclusively driven by exports - particularly of electronics. As a result Malaysia was hard hit by the global economic downturn and the slump in the information technology (IT) sector in 2001 and 2002. The contribution of services to the GDP declined from 59.1% in 2003 to 43.6% in 2005. Industry was the largest contributor to the GDP in 2005 growing from 33.5% in 2003 to 48% in 2005. This increase can be attributed to the growth in the manufacturing subsector and expansion in production of electronics, chemical and petroleum products, textiles and footwear. Contribution of agriculture to the GDP also increased slightly from 7.3% in 2003 to 8.4% in 2005. In 2005, 10.67 million people constituted Malaysia’s labor force (less than 40% of the entire population). Labor force participation of women has remained stable at 47 percent for the last three and a half decades. Close to half the labor force are employed in the services sector (49.5%) followed by industry (36%) and agriculture (14.5%) in 2003. The unemployment rate grew from 3.6% in 2005 to 3.8% in 2006. This rate is higher than that of Thailand (2.2%) but lower than other countries in the region including Indonesia (8.7%) and the Philippines (11.4%). This increase in unemployment rate is attributed to the expansion of the labor market faster than employment. This has particularly increased the number of unemployed graduates—many with inadequate command of English, despite policies introduced to improve language abilities, and with less marketable degrees. Poverty in Malaysia is predominantly, but not exclusively a rural phenomenon. The rural-urban gap in poverty has narrowed and ethnic difference has reduced, however, majority of the poor households are still Bhumiputeras. Population living on less than $1 a day (absolute poverty) increased from less than 2% (1990-2003) to 2% (1990 – 2004). 9.3% of the population were living on less than $2 a day (near poverty) in 2003. 15.5% of the population lived below the national poverty line (the National Poverty Line is US $139 per month in Peninsular Malaysia for an average household size of 4.6; US $182 per month in the Sabah province of West Malaysia for an average household size of 4.9; and US $157 per month in the Sarawak province of West Malaysia for an average household size of 4.8) between 1990 and 2001. In July 2006 the population of Malaysia was close to 24 million with a median age of 24 years. Children below the age of 14 constituted 32.6% of the population, adults in the 15-64 age group constituted 62.6% of the population and older persons aged 65 and over made up 4.7% of the population. Population growth rate was estimated at 1.78% in 2006, higher than its neighboring countries including Thailand (0.68%), Singapore (1.42%), and Indonesia (1.41%). The birth rate was estimated to be 23 births per 1000 population and death rate was estimated as 5 deaths per 1000 population in 2006. While Malaysia’s birth rate is higher than most of its neighbors (Indonesia – 20.34%, Thailand – 13.87%, and Singapore – 9.34%), its death rate is lower than all these countries excluding Singapore (4.28%). In 2004, 94% of the population had access to improved sanitation and 99% had access to improved water sources. [CIA, 2006] In 2001, Malaysia passed the Child Act, which consolidated three acts – the Juvenile Courts Act 1947, Women and Young Girls Act 1973, and the Child Protection Act 1991. The act incorporates the principles of the U.N. Convention of the Rights of the Child, which the Government has ratified in 1995. Abuse, neglect, abandonment or exposing a child to physical and/or emotional injuries is punishable under this law. The Law also established the National Council for the Protection of Children, which advises the Minister on child protection issues. The Council is responsible for the design of a management system to report cases of children in need of protection and to develop programs to educate the public on the prevention of child abuse and neglect. The Law also set up Child Protection Teams to coordinate locally based services to families and children in need of protection. The act stipulates heavier punishments for child abuse, molestation, neglect, and abandonment. It also mandates the formation of a children's court, which, the Government states, would better protect the interests of children. The bill allows caning, but this punishment is limited to male children, who may receive a maximum of 10 strokes with a "light cane." Malaysia adopted a new development philosophy in 1970 after an ethnic unrest. In 1969, which had a significant impact on its social policy. The new policy replaced the former development model, which emphasized a laissez-faire urban-based economy, and was complemented by large-scale Government-funded agricultural/rural development programs. Laissez-faire was perceived as having widened economic and income disparities between, on the one hand, the rural-based Malay and native ethnic groups of Sabah and Sarawak—collectively known as Bumiputera and, on the other, the urban or modern economy based Chinese and Indians. British colonial policy had in general, compartmentalized the Bumiputera in traditional small-scale agriculture, the Chinese in urban-based trade and commerce and the Indians in rubber plantations. The new development philosophy incorporated the concept of growth with equitable distribution and national unity. It was felt that without harmony, economic growth, higher incomes and improved standards of living would be more costly to achieve and less meaningful. [UN, 2003] |
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Government Agencies
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Non-Governmental AgenciesThere are various types of non-profit organizations in Malaysia – societies, charities, unions, cooperatives, NGOs, mosque committees etc. There are four main laws under which such associations need to be registered:
The Department of Welfare is the main government agency that coordinates and works closely with these different organizations. The National Council of Social Welfare functions as an umbrella body of welfare and social development organizations in Malaysia. NGOs in Malaysia have been actively involved in the social sector and their work supplements provision of government services. It is estimated that there were close to 38,845 societies registered in Malaysia in 2005. In addition to independent NGOs, welfare organizations in Malaysia may have one of the following characteristics: be affiliated with religious organizations; be operated by individuals or foundations; and welfare divisions operated by business organizations. NGOs receive monies from both within the country from the governments and donations and/or from international funding agencies. NGOs not only play an important role in social development but also in providing emergency services and responding to disasters. International organizations such as the Malaysian Red Crescent and domestic agencies such as the Malaysian Humanitarian Foundation provide auxiliary services to and are placed under the Ministry of National Unity and Social Development. |
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Demographic ProfileMalaysia’s 2006 population size was 24 million, compared with just 10.4 million in 1970. Some 80 per cent of people live in Peninsular Malaysia, and about 10 per cent each in the Sabah and Sarawak provinces of West Malaysia. The population growth rate in Malaysia has declined from 2% in 2000 to 1.78% in 2006. Fertility levels have fallen from 5.2 children born/woman in 1970-75 to 3.04 children born/woman in 2006. Malaysia’s three main communities Bumiputera (Malays), Chinese, and Indian have experienced different population growth rates since 1957. These three communities have also undergone different pace of fertility transition. The total fertility rate of the Malays had been declining at about 1.1 per cent per annum, as compared to about 3 per cent each for the Chinese and Indians. Non-Malay indigenous groups make up more than half of the state of Sarawak's population, constitute about 66% of Sabah's population, and also exist in much smaller numbers on the Peninsula, where they are collectively called Orang Asli. The Malay’s share of Malaysia’s population rose from 56 per cent in 1970 to 65% in 2000, whereas the Chinese share fell from 34 to 26 per cent; the Indian share is about 8 per cent. These differences can be attributed partly to the power structure in Malaysia since its independence in 1957. Before withdrawing from Malaysia, the British instituted democratic reforms, which left the more numerous Malays politically dominant. The Malay population began to gain at the expense of the Chinese and Indian population who were progressively discriminated against in jobs, education and public service. While the fertility rate of the Indian and Chinese populations declined, respectively, from nearly 8 children per woman in 1957 to 3 in 1987, and from more than 7 to 2.5 children per woman during the same period; the total fertility rate of the Malay population increased by 12%. The overall population density in Malaysia has increased over the years from 31 persons per sq. km in 1970 to 42 in 1980 to 56 in 1991 and 72 persons per sq km (185 per sq mi) in 2004, but the population is unevenly distributed; West Malaysia has a population density about twice the national average. The urban population has increased from 37.7% in 1975 to 62.82% in 2004. Like most developing nations, this reflects the high rural-to-urban migration rates that Malaysia has experienced since the 1950s. Urban unemployment is very low in Malaysia, and this contributes to the growth. The labor shortage for low-skill jobs attracts many immigrants, particularly from Indonesia, the Philippines, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Skilled workers are recruited primarily from India, Japan, and China. In addition to Malaysia’s largest city, Kuala Lumpur, large cities in the country include Ipoh, Johor Baharu, Petaling Jaya, Kelang, Kuala Terengganu, and George Town (formerly Penang). In 2006, the median age of the population was 24.1 years. The age structure of the population in 2006 was: 0 to 14 years – 32.6% of the population, 15 to 64 years - 62.6% of the population, and 65 years and over – 4.7% of the population. The practice of family size limitation has resulted in children under the age of 15 becoming a smaller proportion of the total population. The total dependency ratio (persons aged 0-14 and 65 and above dependent on the 15-64 years working population) declined from 67% to 58.7%between 1992 and 2005 and is expected to further decline to 52% by 2010. This phenomenon gives rise to a ‘demographic bonus’ in which old and young dependents in the population are supported by many adults of working age. This favorable factor has helped Malaysia increase savings and investment and increase per capita income. Population under 15 as percentage of total population is expected to decline from 32.6% to 27.2% between 2006 and 2015 and population aged 65 and above is expected to increase from 4.3% to 6.1% during this period. Malaysia is a multi-ethnic society. In 2006, it was estimated that ethnic Malays (also called Bumiputera or sons of the soil) and indigenous tribes constitute 65% of the population, Chinese constitute 25% and Indians 7% of the population. The national language of Malaysia is Bahasa Malaysia (also known simply as Malay). English, Chinese, and Tamil (a Dravidian language of southern India) are also widely spoken. Islam is the country’s official religion, although the constitution guarantees freedom of religion. More than half the people of Malaysia are Muslims, including nearly all ethnic Malays. Most Chinese are Buddhists, although Confucianism and Daoism (Taoism) are also important. Most Indians practice Hinduism. In Sabah and Sarawak many of the indigenous peoples are Christians, although traditional beliefs are also widely practiced. [CIA World Fact Book, 2006] |
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Social ProtectionProvident and Pension Funds are the two main social security programs available to all persons in the formal sector. The Employees Provident Fund (EPF) is a compulsory savings scheme in Malaysia. First established in October 1951, it is the world's oldest national provident fund. Its primary aim is to ensure its members security and well being in old age. Additionally, members may use part of their EPF savings for their housing, education, and medical needs. Participation in the EPF is mandatory for private sector employees and non-pensionable public sector employees (public sector employees who chose to contribute to the EPF not the government pension scheme). Foreign workers and expatriates earning less than RM 2,500 (US$657.89) per month also are required to contribute to the EPF, with the exception of foreign domestic servants. Coverage is voluntary for the self-employed, domestic servants, seamen, and pensioners. The major funds in Malaysia are the Employees Provident Fund, the Social Security Organization (SOCSO), the Armed Forces Fund and the Teachers Provident Funds. The Social Security Organization (or PERKESO) was formed in 1971 with the objective of providing comprehensive social security protection for Malaysians and to ensure the timely and adequate provision of benefits in a socially just manner. SOCSO also monitors and promotes occupational health and safety within the work environment. Both the employer (12% of earning according to wage classes) and employee (11% of earnings according to wage classes) contribute on a monthly basis to SOCSO towards the provident fund. Self-employed persons contribute between US$13 to US$1,315 to SOCSO towards their provident fund. The funds can be withdrawn from the provident fund account at the age of 55 as a lump sum, in monthly installments, or as a combination of both. The compound interest too can be withdrawn annually if the principal capital is left with the fund beginning at age 55. According to ILO’s World Labor Report (2000), in 1996 Malaysia’s total social security expenditure was 2.9% of the GDP (up from 2.7% in 1990) and health care expenditure was 1.4% of the GDP. Total social security expenditure as percentage of total public expenditure was 13.4% in 1996 up from 8.9% in 1990. |
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Child, Youth and Family Policy RegimesMaternity BenefitsMaternity benefits are available to all women workers employed longer than 90 days, including the self-employed, except domestic workers and manual laborers. Under the Employment Act, 1955 female employees are entitled to fully-paid 60 consecutive days of maternity leave, of which at least 30 days must be prior to child birth. This provision is also available for women who have a miscarriage or a still birth if the pregnancy had lasted for at least 28 weeks. Maternity Allowance is payable for up to 5 births. It is an offence to dismiss an employee who is on maternity leave and employers can not contract out of these provisions. In case employees do not return to work immediately after the maternity leave due to certified medical reasons, employers cannot dismiss the employee unless they remain unfit to work for more than 90 days. The labor force participation of women in Malaysia has stagnated at 47 percent in sharp contrast to the neighboring countries of Thailand, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam where the corresponding figures are 71%, 63% and 60% respectively. This stagnation is attributed to the tendency of a sizable proportion of women to stop work after they have their first birth, and not return once their child-bearing is complete in contrast to many other countries where women either do not leave the labor force during child-bearing, or re-enter soon after their child-bearing has been completed. By international and regional standards, current maternity leave entitlements at 60 days are low. According to the ILO, Malaysia is one of a group of only 20 out of 152 countries providing maternity leave of 60 days or less. Malaysia plans to increase the entitlement, in phases, to 12 weeks, and to also include a short period of paternity leave. Other measures planned to increase women’s participation in the labor force include access to high quality child care and nursery schools, along with flexible time and place working arrangements – teleworking and home offices. The maternity benefits law also excludes domestic servants and foreign domestic servants. |
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Early Childhood EducationPre-school education is not part of the formal education system or compulsory in Malaysia but is funded and delivered by several government agencies and NGOs. The provision for the establishment of pre-schools is enacted in the Education Act 1996. All pre-school centers are registered with the Ministry of Education. Pre-school programs are undertaken by a number of ministries and agencies, including the private and voluntary sector. In the urban sector, pre-school education is mostly conducted by the private sector and various government agencies such as the Ministry of Health, Ministry of National Unity and Social Development, and several state departments. Curriculum guidelines of the Ministry of Education serve as the base for pre-school education. However, there are well-developed Preschool Curriculum Guidelines for children 4-6 years of age, there is no equivalent curriculum guideline for children under the age of four. In addition to this agencies running the pre-schools are free to choose the medium of instruction to be used in their establishments. ECCE programs are divided into home-based centers (what some would call family day care homes) serving fewer than 10 children and targeted largely on children under age 4, and preschools for 4-6 year olds, disproportionately available in urban areas. Public preschool programs are free to parents and fully funded by the government. The government pays for all expenses including teacher salaries, capital cost and equipment, food subsidies, etc. Private preschools charge fees. Some of the NGOs that operate private preschools are the Malaysian Kindergarten Association, The Malaysian Association of Child Care Providers, the Malaysian Council for Child Welfare, and the National Association of Preschool Teachers. Coverage for preschool education has improved dramatically over the last decade-and-half, from 17 percent of 4-6 year olds in 1981 to 41.5 percent in l995 and 64% in 2000. Preschool education is conducted largely by the government, and then by NGOs, and other private social organizations. The government operated 81.6 percent of the preschool programs in 1995. Of these, 61.8 percent are operated by the Community Development Division of the Ministry of Rural Development, 9.5 percent by the Ministry of National Unity and Social Development, and 10.3 percent by the Ministry of Education. The other 18.4 percent are operated by the private sector. At present Malaysia lacks a comprehensive policy to support the overall development of young children as they make the transition from home to care outside the home, to preschool and then into the primary school. Current services are fragmented and there is a lack of interface among the agencies currently serving young children and their families. The Malaysian government is greatly concerned about the inadequacies in its preschool program and supportive of efforts to expand the supply of preschools, to amend the Education Act of 1996 and make preschool education compulsory, and to increase the investment in preschool and education generally. It also plans on developing a comprehensive policy on Early Childhood Care and Education. [ECD Group, 1995] |
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Child EducationEducation is an important part of poverty alleviation, national unity and economic growth efforts of the Government of Malaysia. Upgrading the national education system and broadening educational opportunities has been a central part of the government’s strategy to foster national unity and support economic growth. It has also been a strategy to help reduce poverty and expand opportunities and choices for both girls and boys. Government efforts have been supported at the family level by parents who have perceived education as an opportunity for providing upward mobility and a better life for their children. The Education Act 1996 that regulates the provision of preschool, primary and secondary education was amended to enable the implementation of compulsory primary education, which took effect from 2003. The government’s commitment to education, as a prime contributor to national development, is evidenced by the continuous and large capital investments in educational infrastructure and supported by substantial recurrent expenditures in the period since 1970. Educational expenditure averaged some 17 per cent of total public expenditure, and 5 per cent of the GDP over the period 1970–2000. This increased from 5.1% of the GDP in 1991 to 8% of the GDP between 2002-04. However, expenditure on pre-primary and primary education declined from 34% in 1991 to 28% between 2002-04 while expenditure on tertiary education increased during this period from 19.9% to 36.5%. Education in Malaysia is free and compulsory for 11 years: six years of primary school, three years of junior high school and two years of senior high school. The costs of education to poor families have been kept low by making education free and providing assistance for indirect costs, such as school uniforms and shoes, besides providing scholarships and other financial assistance to poor families. In 1970, one-third of Malaysia’s population aged 6 and over had never attended school, with some 12 per cent of all primary school-age children not in school. But by 1990, Malaysia had essentially achieved the goal of universal primary education –– not only in terms of enrolment ratios, but also in terms of the number of primary school children completing primary school education. In 1990, 99% of boys and girls were enrolled, 95% of whom completed primary schooling (till standard five). This was accomplished despite the continuing increase in the number of school-aged children. The provision of educational infrastructure to ensure access of the rural poor to education was central to this success. Specific programs included; an ongoing textbook loan scheme for which the great majority of primary pupils are eligible; a supplementary feeding scheme, school health program, and school milk program, which have both improved health and raised the attendance of children from poor families; and provision of residential schools, mainly in Sabah and Sarawak. Universal primary education for Malaysian girls and boys had almost been achieved by 2000. Enrollment at lower and upper secondary levels has also increased sharply. In 2004, not enrollment ratio was 93% in primary and 76% in secondary education. The number of women enrolled in education (combined gross enrollment ratio of primary, secondary and tertiary) was higher (76%) than that of males (70%). This increase in primary education also increased literacy levels in Malaysia. The Adult Literacy Rate (percentage of persons aged 15 and above who can read and write) in Malaysia increased from 80.7% in 1990 to 88.7% in 2004The Youth Literacy Rate (percentage of persons between the age of 15-24 who can read and write) increased from 94.8% in 1990 to 97.2% in 2004. Parents can choose between Malay, Chinese, or Tamil as the language of instruction. From secondary schooling, Malay is the primary language of instruction and English is a compulsory second language. However, continued learning in Chinese and Tamil is available in all secondary schools. Malaysia has a number of institutions of higher education, including nine universities. Universities include the National University, in Bangi; the University of Technology, in Johor Baharu; and the University of Malaya, in Kuala Lumpur. Historically, girls had unequal access to primary and secondary schooling. This gender disparity had largely disappeared at the primary level by 1970, and in the most recent years girls outnumber boys both in secondary school enrolment (in all states) and more conspicuously at the tertiary level, reflecting in part the much greater number of females than males seeking tertiary teaching and nursing qualifications. [HDR, 2006] |
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Child HealthIn Malaysia, investment in health has been a central component of the overall development strategy. Improved health status is perceived as an outcome of economic development and indeed, as a means of achieving economic development. Since 1957, health sector development programs have concentrated on improving the health of all Malaysians. They aim to do this by providing an integrated and comprehensive range of quality health services including primary, secondary and tertiary levels of care. In addition, the Government, which is responsible for providing health care as stipulated in the Federal Constitution, has ensured a more equitable distribution of services, thereby improving access to health care. At the core of Malaysia’s success in providing health care is a well-developed primary health care system, capable of bringing medical advances, including vaccines and oral rehydration for the treatment of diarrhea, to the poor. Together with improved access to clean water, improved sanitation, and better child nutrition, reinforced by programs to reduce poverty, increase literacy, and the provision of modern infrastructure, the health care system has had a demonstrable impact. [UN, 2003] Increasing access to basic child health care has been made possible by the extensive network of health centers and clinics, supported by trained midwives and other health workers, and delivered through an integrated maternal and child health (MCH) program. Upgrading the training level of public health nurses and midwives to the community nurse conversion program has served to bring child health services closer to homes and communities. Public hospitals are the most widely available and used health care services in Malaysia. There are about 117 government national and district hospitals throughout the country. These hospitals are supported by approximately 864 community polyclinics/ health clinics, 95 maternal and child health centers, 168 mobile clinics and 1676 rural community health clinics. It is estimated that 92% of urbanites live within 3 km (1.9 miles) of a health facility as compared with 69% of rural populations. During the Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001-2005), 5% of the social sector development budget, was allocated to the development of health services; an increase of 47.3% compared with the Seventh Malaysia Plan allocation, reflecting the importance given to the development of the health sector. Under the newly announced Ninth Malaysia plan (2006-2010), there has been an increased allocation towards healthcare with RM10.2 billion (approx. US$2.77 billion) compared to RM9.5 billion in the previous plan. More than RM2 billion, or 20% of the overall budget, will be spent on developing rural health services, an increase of more than 250% in spending compared to the previous plan, which spanned from 2001-2005. However the public expenditure on health as percentage of GDP declined from 3.8% in 2001 to 2.2% in 2002. [HDR, 2006] These improvements are reflected in the improved indicators of health in Malaysia. The Infant Mortality Rate declined from 46 deaths per 1000 live births in 1970 to 8 deaths per 1000 live births in 2002 and 5 deaths per 1000 live births in 2005. The Under-Five Mortality Rate too declined from 63 deaths per 1000 live births in 1970 to 8 deaths per 1000 live births in 2002. Maternal Mortality Rate declined from was 41 deaths in 2000 to 30 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2005. The Life expectancy at birth increased from 63 years in 1970to 73.5 years in 05. The major health elements of Malaysia’s health program include promotion of health as an integral component of its rural development strategies and programs, prevention of communicable diseases - including malaria and tuberculosis, improving access to clean water and sanitation, increasing maternal and child health facilities, and focusing on preventive health education and nutrition program. The key causes of child mortality in Malaysia are identified and targeted through nutrition programs, and immunization for infants as part of the Expanded Program of Immunization for Children. All these efforts have led to the significant achievements in the health sector in Malaysia. [UN, 2003] HIV/AIDS The first case of HIV infection diagnosed in Malaysia was reported late in 1986. In the two decades since then, the number of new cases has risen exponentially. By the end of 2004, roughly 64,000 Malaysians were reported as infected with HIV, of whom some 9,400 had developed AIDS. In 2005, the HIV prevalence rate was estimated between 0.2 and 1.5% of the entire population. The majority of reported AIDS cases and HIV infections contracted were through injecting drug use. Transmission through sexual intercourse accounted for 25% of the AIDS cases and 11.7% of HIV infections in 2003. The bulk of infected cases are males who accounted for more than 90 per cent of those living with HIV and AIDS in 2003. The proportion of women with HIV has increased over time, rising from 1.4 per cent in 1990 to 3.4 per cent in 1995, and reaching almost 7 per cent of cumulative cases in 2003. The number of women living with AIDS increased from zero in 1990 to 700 in 2003. Unlike the case for men, the main risk for Malaysian women is through unprotected sex, either from a regular sex partner, or from multiple partners. By the end of 2001, there were an estimated 5,500 Malaysian children under age 15 orphaned by HIV/AIDS. UNAIDS and WHO global surveillance of HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections estimated that the figure could be as high as 14,000 children who have lost their mother or father or both parents to AIDS. [You and AIDS, 2004] The WHO classifies Malaysia as a country experiencing a concentrated epidemic, since HIV prevalence has steadily increased among the general population. The number of persons seeking treatment has also steadily increased. In 2002, 5,800 cases were treated at 208 health clinics compared to 3,200 cases in 2001, representing an increase of 83 per cent. About 82 per cent of the HIV patients received counseling and supportive therapy, while 15 per cent were given chemoprophylaxis for opportunistic infection and only 3 per cent received antiretroviral therapy (ART). The Malaysian government has adopted a multi-sectoral approach in its efforts to control HIV/AIDS and has increasingly supported measures to respond to the pandemic. This includes involving sectors other than health, such as education, information, and drug agency, as well as NGOs, in the many aspects of AIDS prevention, treatment, care, and support. A Taskforce on AIDS was set up in 1986 and the Ministry of Health facilitated the formation of the Malaysian AIDS Council (MAC) in 1993, an umbrella body of multi-sectoral NGOs involved in HIV/AIDS activities, in order to coordinate various outreach activities. The National AIDS Program and the Plan of Action formulated in 1988 have focused on raising public awareness and knowledge on HIV/AIDS. The Department of Health implements the Plan of Action in collaboration with the Department of Religious Affairs, MAC, the UNDP, and other international organizations seeking the involvement of religious leaders, and their participation in joint efforts to educate and to initiate or support community programs related to HIV/AIDS. |
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Special Groups of ChildrenChild LaborThe Children and Young Persons (Employment) Act prohibits the employment of children younger than the age of 14. The act permits some exceptions, such as light work in a family enterprise, work in public entertainment, work performed for the Government in a school or in training institutions, or work as an approved apprentice. In no case may children work more than 6 hours per day, more than 6 days per week, or at night. Child labor occurs in certain areas of the country. However, there is no reliable estimate of the number of child workers. Most child laborers work informally in the agricultural sector, helping their parents in the field. However, only adult members of the family receive a wage. In urban areas, child labor can be found in family food businesses, night markets, and small-scale industries. Government officials do not deny the existence of child labor in family businesses but maintain that foreign workers have largely replaced child labor and that the Government vigorously enforces child labor provisions. In practice, mechanisms for monitoring workplace conditions are inadequate, and the resolution of most abuse cases are often left to private, for profit labor agencies that are themselves often guilty of abuses. Bilateral labor agreements between Indonesia and Malaysia do not provide adequate protections for domestic workers. [US Department of State, 2005] |
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Child TraffickingThere is no law that specifically and comprehensively criminalizes trafficking in persons. However, the Child Act 2001 prohibits all forms of trafficking of children under 18, and the Penal Code comprehensively addresses trafficking for the purpose of prostitution. The Government also uses other laws, such as the Immigration Act, and the Restricted Residence Act, to prosecute traffickers. The penalty under the Child Act 2001 for trafficking of a minor is fifty thousand ringgit (US $14,200) or imprisonment for a term not exceeding 15 years or both. Offences for acting as an intermediary and aiding/ abetting/ controlling the prostitution of a child is not only liable to a fine not exceeding fifty thousand ringgit and to imprisonment for a term of not less than 3 years but not more than 15 years, but also be punished with whipping of not more than 6 strokes. Malaysia is a source, transit, and a destination country for trafficking in women and girls for sexual exploitation. Women and girls from Thailand and the Philippines are trafficked through the country to destinations such as Australia, Canada, Japan, Korea, and the United States. Young women primarily from Indonesia, China, Thailand, and the Philippines are trafficked into the country for sexual exploitation. These women often worked as karaoke hostesses, "guest relations officers," and masseuses. Some foreign women and girls employed as domestic servants are held in conditions that amount to forced labor. Malaysian women and girls are also trafficked for sexual purposes, mostly to Singapore, Macau, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, but also to Japan, Australia, Canada, and the United States. According to police and Chinese community leaders, female citizens who are victims of trafficking are usually ethnic Chinese, although ethnic Malay and ethnic Indian women work as prostitutes domestically. Police and NGOs believed that criminal syndicates are behind most of the trafficking. Trafficking victims are kept compliant through involuntary confinement, confiscation of travel documents, debt bondage, and physical abuse. In 2002, the Government amended the Penal Code to include extensive provisions prohibiting buying or selling any person, using deceitful means to bring anyone into or out of the country, and wrongfully restraining (defined to include using threats, withholding clothing, or holding a person's passport) any person with the intention that that person will be used for the purposes of prostitution. Punishment for these offenses includes a maximum 15-year prison term, caning, and a fine, to be determined at the discretion of the sentencing judge. The government and a number of NGOs with government support provide shelter for trafficking victims and assist in repatriating them to their home countries. [US Department of State, 2005] |
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